SUN LIGHT PARADISE CHURCH : A Peep to Wiccan Spirituality Post By Website Administrator

What Is Wicca?

The article below describes how Wicca draws from the Old Traditions of Witchcraft. While this is true, we would simply like to clarify that Witchcraft and Wicca, while simular in many respects, are not the same. One can be a Witch, without being a Wiccan, just as a person can be a Christian, without being a Baptist. Wicca is a recognized religion, while Witchcraft itself is not considered a religion. Thus, Wicca might best be described as a modern religion, based on ancient Witchcraft traditions.

Contrary to what those who choose to persecute or lie about us wish to believe, Wicca is a very peaceful, harmonious and balanced way of life which promotes oneness with the divine and all which exists.

Wicca is a deep appreciation and awe in watching the sunrise or sunset, the forest in the light of a glowing moon, a meadow enchanted by the first light of day. It is the morning dew on the petals of a beautiful flower, the gentle caress of a warm summer breeze upon your skin, or the warmth of the summer sun on your face. Wicca is the fall of colorful autumn leaves, and the softness of winter snow. It is light, and shadow and all that lies in between. It is the song of the birds and other creatures of the wild. It is being in the presence of Mother Earths nature and being humbled in reverence. When we are in the temple of the Lord and Lady, we are not prone to the arrogance of human technology as they touch our souls. To be a Witch is to be a healer, a teacher, a seeker, a giver, and a protector of all things. If this path is yours, may you walk it with honor, light and integrity.

Wicca is a belief system and way of life based upon the reconstruction of pre-Christian traditions originating in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. While much of the information of how our ancestors lived, worshiped and believed has been lost due to the efforts of the medieval church to wipe our existence from history, we try to reconstruct those beliefs to the best of our ability with the information that is available.

Thanks to archaeological discoveries, we now have basis to believe that the origins of our belief system can be traced even further back to the Paleolithic peoples who worshipped a Hunter God and a Fertility Goddess. With the discovery of these cave paintings, estimated to be around 30,000 years old, depicting a man with the head of a stag, and a pregnant woman standing in a circle with eleven other people, it can reasonably be assumed that Witchcraft is one of the oldest belief systems known in the world toady. These archetypes are clearly recognized by Wiccan as our view of the Goddess and God aspect of the supreme creative force and predate Christianity by roughly 28,000 years making it a mere toddler in the spectrum of time as we know it.

Witchcraft in ancient history was known as "The Craft of the Wise" because most who followed the path were in tune with the forces of nature, had a knowledge of Herbs and medicines, gave council and were valuable parts of the village and community as Shamanic healers and leaders. They understood that mankind is not superior to nature, the earth and its creatures but instead we are simply one of the many parts, both seen and unseen that combine to make the whole. As Chief Seattle said; "We do not own the earth, we are part of it." These wise people understood that what we take or use, we must return in kind to maintain balance and equilibrium. Clearly, modern man with all his applied learning and technology has forgotten this. Subsequently, we currently face ecological disaster and eventual extinction because of our hunger for power and a few pieces of gold.

For the past several hundred years, the image of the Witch has been mistakenly associated with evil, heathenism, and unrighteousness. In my humble opinion, these misconceptions have their origin in a couple of different places.

To begin, the medieval church of the 15th through 18th centuries created these myths to convert the followers of the old nature based religions to the churches way of thinking. By making the Witch into a diabolical character and turning the old religious deities into devils and demons, the missionaries were able to attach fear to these beliefs which aided in the conversion process. Secondly, as medical science began to surface, the men who were engaged in these initial studies had a very poor understanding of female physiology, especially in the area of a women's monthly cycles. The unknowns in this area played very well with the early churches agenda lending credence to the Witch Hunters claims and authority. The fledgling medical professions also stood to benefit greatly from this because it took the power of the women healers away giving it to the male physicians transferring the respect and power to them.

Unfortunately these misinformed fears and superstitions have carried forward through the centuries and remain to this day. This is why many who follow these nature oriented beliefs have adopted the name of Wicca over its true name of Witchcraft to escape the persecution, harassment and misinformation associated with the name of Witchcraft and Witch not to mention the bad publicity the press and Hollywood has given us simply to generate a profit.

What Witchcraft is:

Witchcraft is a spiritual system that fosters the free thought and will of the individual, encourages learning and an understanding of the earth and nature thereby affirming the divinity in all living things. Most importantly however, it teaches responsibility. We accept responsibility for our actions and deeds as clearly a result of the choices we make. We do not blame an exterior entity or being for our shortcomings, weaknesses or mistakes. If we mess up or do something that brings harm to another, we have no one but ourselves to blame and we must face the consequences resulting from those actions. No ifs, ands or buts and no whining...

We acknowledge the cycles of nature, the lunar phases and the seasons to celebrate our spirituality and to worship the divine. It is a belief system that allows the Witch to work with, not in supplication to deities with the intent of living in harmony and achieving balance with all things.

The spells that we do involve healing, love, harmony, wisdom and creativity. The potions that we stir might be a headache remedy, a cold tonic, or an herbal flea bath for our pets. We strive to gain knowledge of and use the natural remedies placed on this earth by the divine for our benefit instead of using synthetic drugs unless absolutely necessary.

Wiccan believe that the spirit of the One, Goddess and God exist in all things. In the trees, rain, flowers, the sea, in each other and all of natures creatures. This means that we must treat "all things" of the Earth as aspects of the divine. We attempt to honor and respect life in all its many manifestations both seen and unseen.

Wiccan learn from and revere the gift of nature from divine creation by celebrating the cycles of the sun, moon and seasons. We search within ourselves for the cycles that correspond to those of the natural world and try to live in harmony with the movement of this universal energy. Our teachers are the trees, rivers, lakes, meadows, mountains and animals as well as others who have walked this path before us. This belief creates a reverence and respect for the environment, and all life upon the Earth.

We also revere the spirits of the elements of Earth, Air, Fire and Water which combine to manifest all creation. From these four elements we obtain insight to the rhythms of nature and understand they are also the rhythms of our own lives.

Because Witches have been persecuted for so many centuries, we believe in religious freedom first! We do not look at our path as the only way to achieve spirituality, but as one path among many to the same end. We are not a missionary religion out to convert new members to think the same as we do. We are willing to share our experience and knowledge with those who seek our wisdom and perspective however. We believe that anyone who is meant for this path will find it through their own search as the Goddess speaks to each of us in her time and way. Wiccan practice tolerance and acceptance toward all other religions as long as those faiths do not persecute others or violate the tenant of "Harm None."

What Witchcraft is not:

More information about Witchcraft is available in the Frequently Asked Questions section, but in the interim, here are the main points.

Witchcraft or Wicca is not a cult. We do not proclaim ourselves to be spokespersons for the divine or try to get others to follow us as their leaders.

We do not worship Satan or consort with Demons. Satan is a Christian creation and they can keep him. We do not need a paranoid creation of supreme evil and eternal damnation to scare us into doing the right thing and helping others. We choose to do the right thing and love our brothers and sisters because it IS the right thing and it feels good to do it. I suppose it is a maturity thing.

We do not sacrifice animals or humans because that would violate our basic tenant of "Harm None." Anyone who does and claims to be a Wiccan or a Witch is lying.

We have no need to steal or control the life force of another to achieve mystical or supernatural powers. We draw our energy from within, our personal relationship with the divine and nature.

We do not use the forces of nature or the universe to hex or cast spells on others. Again, "Harm None" is the whole of the law.

Witches have a very strict belief in the Law of Three which states that whatever we send out into our world shall return to us three fold either good or bane. With this in mind, a "True Witch" would hesitate in doing magick to harm or manipulate another because that boomerang we throw will eventually come back to us much larger and harder then when we threw it.

This is not to say that Witches are perfect, we are human too just like everyone else and make mistakes and errors in judgment. Just as there are parents who love and nurture their children, there are parents who abuse their children. As there are many who devote their lives to giving and helping mankind, likewise there are those who devote their lives to taking advantage of and using people for their own gain. Unfortunately the same flaws in human nature applies to witches too.

Most of us continually strive to consider all potential outcomes of our thoughts and actions pausing to seriously consider the consequences before undertaking a ritual, spell or rite that could go astray. It is when we follow the path with the love of the Goddess in our hearts and adhere to the basic tenant of the Reed that our works are beneficial and we achieve harmony and balance with all things.

The heart of Wicca is not something summed up into a few short words and can often take on different meaning to each since the Lord and Lady touch us in different ways. To gain a fuller understanding of the Craft, I urge you visit the other pages on this site as well as following the links to a select group of exceptional Wiccan and Witchcraft sites. Through the wisdom and words set down through the ages, you will find that you are able to understand the basis of our beliefs and how they may apply to you. Your inner voice will also quickly let you know if the intent of what you are reading is for superficial purposes to benefit self instead of working to benefit the whole. Remember to read with your heart, for it is when you see life and the world with your heart and spirit that you truly gain an understanding of what Wicca is.

9 Things You Should Know About Wicca and Modern Witchcraft

A growing number of young women—driven by feminist politics and the #MeToo movement—are being drawn to a new brand of witchcraft, according to a report by NBC News. Here are nine things you should know about Wicca and modern witchcraft.

1. Witchcraft refers to the worldview, religion, and practices associated with using rituals that are believed to harness and focus cosmic or psychic energies to bring about some desired change. Modern witchcraft is the largest and most common subset of neo-paganism, a diverse group of religious movements that claim to be derived from historical pagan religions.

2. Within the witchcraft revival movement, the largest subset is Wicca. The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey estimated that in the United States there were about 600,000 neo-pagans, with about half identifying as Wiccan. Some estimates conclude that in 2017 there were more than 3 million practicing Wiccans.

3. In modern usage, the term “witch” is considered gender-neutral and can apply to either men or women. The term “warlock” is often considered a derogatory term as the original usage of the term meant “oath-breaker.” A group of witches who meet together regularly are known as a “coven.” Some witches believe a coven must have 13 or fewer members, though not less than three.

4. Wicca was created in the 1940s by Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964), a retired British civil servant an ordained minister in the Christian sect known as the Ancient British Church. Gardner is considered the “father of modern witchcraft,” though his neo-pagan beliefs had almost not connection to older forms of witchcraft. His brand of wiccanism (sometimes referred to as Gardnerian Wicca or Gardnerian witchcraft) was taken from more modern influences, such as Freemasonry, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the English occultist Aleister Crowley. Gardner referred to his belief-system as “witchcraft” and a “witch-cult,” and the term “Wicca” didn’t appear until 1962.

5. In the 1960s and 1970, Wicca spread from the U.K. to other English-speaking countries, became associated with the burgeoning feminist and environmental movements, and split into various “traditions.” From Gardnerian Wicca sprang such offshoots as Alexandrian Wicca, Algard Wicca, Georgian Wicca, Druidic Wicca, Seax-Wica, and Eclectic Wicca.

6. The U.S. government first officially recognized Wicca as a religion in 1985. In a court case involving a prisoner (Dettmer v. Landon), the federal government argued that the doctrine of the Church of Wicca was not a religion because it is a “conglomeration” of “various aspects of the occult, such as faith healing, self-hypnosis, tarot card reading, and spell casting, none of which would be considered religious practices standing alone.” The court noted that the government was essentially arguing “that because it finds witchcraft to be illogical and internally inconsistent, witchcraft cannot be a religion.” The appeals court ruled that, “the Church of Wicca occupies a place in the lives of its members parallel to that of more conventional religions. Consequently, its doctrine must be considered a religion.”

7. A commonly shared core belief of Wicca (as well as other forms of modern witchcraft) is the acceptance and practice of magic. The Wiccan view is similar to that of Aleister Crowley, who defined magic as “the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will.” As Wesley Baines says, “Many believe magic to be simply another law of nature, albeit one that is poorly understood and written off as fakery. As such, magic is not supernatural, but just as natural as gravity and wind, and often involve a combination of invocations, movement, music, meditation, and tools.” And as one Wiccan site explains, “Magick [sic] is another word for transformation, creation, and manifestation. Wicca magick is a tool we use to act on the subtle—or energy, or quantum—level of reality. The quantum level is the causal realm. It is the s

. It is the subtle influences at the quantum level that decide which way reality will go.”

8. Aside from a belief in magic, there are few beliefs that all Wiccan traditions share. The belief most commonly associated with Wicca is a variation of the Wiccan Rede (“rede” is from the Middle English, meaning “advice” or “counsel”). Believed to have been formulated by the Wiccan priestess Doreen Valiente in the early 1960s, the Wiccan Rede is stated as, “An’ it harm none, do what ye will.” Variations on the rede include “That it harm none, do as thou wilt” and “Do what you will, so long as it harms none.”

9. In its older forms, Wicca holds a duotheistic belief system that includes a female Mother Goddess and a male Horned God. As Wicca has became more influenced by feminism, though, it has become more oriented toward goddess worship. As Jone Salomonsen concludes, “Witches perceive of themselves as having left the Father’s House (Jewish and Christian religion) and returned ‘home’ to the Self (Goddess religion) with a call to heal western women’s (and men’s) alienation from community and spirituality and to become benders of human and societal developments.” This flexibility in excluding/including deities has, as Michael F. Strmiska says, “allowed people with interest in different deities and religious traditions to customize Wicca to suit their specific interests, thus enhancing the religion’s appeal to a broad and growing membership.”

Wicca As Religion

Wicca, a predominantly Western movement whose followers practice witchcraft and nature worship and who see it as a religion based on pre-Christian traditions of northern and western Europe. It spread through England in the 1950s and subsequently attracted followers in Europe and the United States.

Origins And Beliefs

Although there were precursors to the movement, the origins of modern Wicca can be traced to a retired British civil servant, Gerald Brousseau Gardner (1884–1964). Gardner spent most of his career in Asia, where he became familiar with a variety of occult beliefs and magical practices. He also read widely in Western esoteric literature, including the writings of the British occultist Aleister Crowley. Returning to England shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Gardner became involved in the British occult community and founded a new movement based on a reverence of nature, the practice of magic, and the worship of a female deity (the Goddess) and numerous associated deities (such as the Horned God). He also borrowed liberally from Western witchcraft traditions. Following the 1951 repeal of England’s archaic Witchcraft Laws, Gardner published Witchcraft Today (1954), founded his first coven of followers, and, with input from its members, especially author Doreen Valiente, developed modern witchcraft into what today is known as Wicca. It spread quickly to the United States in the late 1960s, when an emphasis on nature, unconventional lifestyles, and a search for spirituality divorced from traditional religions were especially in vogue.

Covens, which ideally number 10 to 15 members and are entered through an initiation ritual, sometime align with one of many coven associations. As coven members master the practice of magic and become familiar with the rituals, they pass through two degrees of initiation. There is a third degree for those who wish to enter the priesthood. In Gardner’s system priority is given to the priestess, and leaders in the Gardnerian community trace their authority through a lineage of priestesses back to Gardner’s coven.

Despite variation within the Wiccan community, most believers share a general set of beliefs and practices. They believe in the Goddess, respect nature, and hold both polytheistic and pantheistic views. Most Wiccans accept the so-called Wiccan Rede, an ethical code that states “If it harm none, do what you will.” Wiccans believe in meditation and participate in rituals throughout the year, celebrating the new and full moon, as well as the vernal equinox, summer solstice, and Halloween, which they call Samhain. Wiccan rites include invoking the aid of the deities, practicing ceremonial magic, and sharing a ritual meal.

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Most controversial to outsiders is that Wiccans call themselves witches, a term which most Westerners identify with Satanism. As a result, Wiccans are continually denying any connection with Satan or devil worship. Wiccans have also attempted to establish ties with other polytheistic (Hindu) and nature-oriented (Native American) religious communities.

Later Developments

By the 1980s there were an estimated 50,000 Wiccans in western Europe and North America. Although the growth rate slowed by the end of the decade, Wicca gained increasing social acceptance and diversified to include numerous variations on Gardner’s original teachings and rituals. Moreover, new Wiccan groups emerged independent of the Gardnerians, including one led by Alexander Sanders (1926–1988), the Dianic Wiccans who saw Wicca as a woman’s religion, and the parallel Neo-Pagan movement, which also worshipped the Goddess and practiced witchcraft but eschewed the designation witch. A major controversy developed in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, when a faction of Wiccans broke with Gardner’s notion that clothes inhibited magical workings and chose not to follow his practice of worshiping in the nude. Instead they donned ritual robes, claiming pre-Gardnerian sources for their beliefs, and called themselves Traditionalists.

As Wicca and Neo-Paganism moved into their second generation, belief faded in the notion that Gardner had inherited a set of witchcraft rituals and and practices that had been passed on through a tradition with unbroken ties to pre-Christian paganism. Although many Wiccans once cited the work of Margaret Murray, including The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) and her article “Witchcraft” published in the 14th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica (1929), in support of their belief in the ancient origins of their religion, they now generally recognize that Wicca began with Gardner and his associates.

As the 21st century began, Wiccans and Neo-Pagans were found throughout the English-speaking world and across northern and western Europe. Two international fellowships, the Pagan Federation and the Universal Federation of Pagans, now serve the larger Wiccan/Neo-Pagan community.

WHAT IS WICCA? A BEGINNER’S GUIDE TO THE WICCAN RELIGION

What is Wicca? The answer to this question can vary, depending on who you ask, but below you’ll find a general introduction to this fascinating spiritual path.

Wicca is a modern, Earth-centered religion with roots in the ancient practices of our shamanic ancestors. Its practitioners, who call themselves Wiccans, honor the life-giving and life-sustaining powers of Nature through ritual worship and a commitment to living in balance with the Earth. Wicca is technically classified as a Pagan religion, though not all Wiccans would identify as Pagans—and plenty who identify as Pagans are not Wiccans.

In truth, Wicca is extremely dynamic and ever-evolving, so it’s difficult to make very many statements about it that every single person identifying as a Wiccan will agree with. However, it’s probably safe to say that when looking at the night sky, or the view from the top of a mountain, or the glassy surface of a lake, most—if not all—Wiccans will feel very much in the presence of the divine. So then, what is Wicca? What does it mean to be a Wiccan? And what are the core beliefs of Wicca as a religion?

LIFE CYCLES: THE WICCAN GODDESS AND GOD

The deities of Wicca are the Goddess and the God, who are the female and male essences of the all-encompassing life force responsible for all of creation, including the cycles of life and death on Earth. The God and Goddess are worshipped at regular intervals throughout the year. Festivals emphasizing the God are known as Sabbats. Corresponding with the Earth’s position relative to the Sun, they include the Solstices, the Equinoxes, and the four cross-quarter days that fall in between these solar points. The Goddess, on the other hand, is worshipped at every Full Moon, and these holidays are called Esbats.

Taken together, all of these ritual celebrations comprise the Wheel of the Year, which Wiccans actively participate in “turning” as they mark the natural cycles of planting, growth, harvesting, and dying back. In this worldview, death is seen as an essential part of ongoing creation, as the old must make way for the new. The shadow side of life—represented by the “dark of the Moon’’ just before the Moon turns new again—is every bit as important as the light. In this spirit, some forms of Wicca have a tradition of the “light half” and “dark half” of the year, marked by the Summer and Winter solstices, respectively

WHAT IS WICCA: A DECENTRALIZED RELIGION

Wicca is a very unique religion for many reasons. First, unlike the dominant monotheistic, organized religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam, Wicca has no designated centers of worship. Instead, the Wiccan faith consists of a very decentralized community of groups and individuals who may worship in public spaces, in the privacy of their own homes, and/or outdoors in natural settings, either with others or alone.

Second, there is no official “holy book” or specific, rigid ideology that all practitioners are expected to adhere to. While there are several beliefs that Wiccans have in common, there is no single way of understanding the divine that is considered to be more “correct” than another. For example, some Wiccans have a pantheistic view of the world, meaning they believe that the same divine source is present in all of nature, while others are more polytheistic, incorporating one or more additional deities from ancient religions into their practice along with the Goddess and God.

This fluidity within the overall Wiccan belief system is a welcome aspect to many who discover the religion, as it allows—and even encourages—people to seek their own truths as they make their way along their own spiritual path. Indeed, there is really an infinite variety of spiritual paths that fall under the umbrella term of “Wicca.” In fact, it could be said that the only absolute tenets within the larger umbrella of Wicca are the inherent divinity of Nature, and our responsibility to respect and care for the Earth.

WICCA AND MAGIC

Many people asking the question “What is Wicca” have heard of the associations between Wicca and magic. This is because many (but not all) Wiccans tap into their personal connection with the divine energies of Nature to actually shape the circumstances of their own lives, as well as to work for the benefit of others. This practice is known as magic, or “magick,” as it is often spelled within the Wiccan and larger Pagan community. Magic is a much older tradition than Wicca itself, and is definitely not exclusive to Wicca, but there are a few common characteristics of the practice among those who follow Wicca that give it a particularly “Wiccan” feel.

For one, magic is often incorporated into the rituals performed at Sabbats and Esbats, and plenty of Wiccans also perform spellwork at the New Moon. Wiccan magic generally involves the use of ritual tools and ingredients such as candles, crystals and herbs, as well as spoken chants and affirmations, and may call upon the God, the Goddess, and/or other “lesser” deities for assistance in manifesting the desired outcome.

The main and most important aspect of Wiccan magic, however, is the rule often referred to as “harm to none” or “The Wiccan Rede.” This states that all magic must be worked only for positive purposes, in a way that causes no harm to others, either deliberately or indeliberately. Wiccans take this rule very seriously, as it serves the ideal of living in harmonious balance with all of existence. (To learn more about magic, check out these articles on crystal, herbal, and candle magic for beginners.)

THE ORIGINS OF WICCA

Wicca is described as a modern religion, yet there is a sense of timelessness to the way in which Wiccans tune into the forces that make up our world. Much has been made of the question of just how far back in the past Wicca actually stems from. The origins of what we now refer to as Wicca are traced back to England in the first half of the 20th century, and to a spiritual pioneer by the name of Gerald Gardner. Seeking to revive what he believed was an ancient religion that had been almost completely eradicated by the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, Gardner and a few fellow spiritual explorers formed a coven and began performing rituals devoted to the worship of the Goddess and the God. The specific names for these deities, as well as most other details of the coven’s practice, were kept secret under oath by the coven members, and passed down to new members only upon initiation.

Over time, this new practice of what many Wiccans refer to as “the Old Religion” began to spread, as members of Gardner’s group went on to form their own covens, which led ultimately to the spread of what came to be called “Wicca” from England to North America and beyond. Eventually, it became clear that there was not, in fact, a verifiable direct link between Wicca and a singular pre-Christian pagan religion. Nonetheless, Wiccans do feel a timeless connection to the ancient energies of the Earth, which are very much still active today, and can be tapped into by communing with Nature.

PRACTICING WICCA

Although there are still traditional covens following in the lineage of Gardner and his colleagues, much of what is practiced today in the name of Wicca bears little, if any, resemblance to the Wicca of the 1940s and 50s. Most Wiccans are solitary practitioners, who are not initiated into a specific tradition but rather borrow elements from various sources to create their own eclectic practice.

This phenomenon of “DIY” Wicca, along with the rising popularity of the faith all over the globe, has resulted in an extremely rich and diverse religion that continues to evolve with each passing day. For people who are new to the faith, the amount of differing and sometimes even conflicting information about Wicca can be daunting. But for those who are naturally drawn to forging their own path in life, the diversity to be found within Wicca can be incredibly rewarding.

This has been just a very brief answer to the question “What is Wicca?” You can find many other articles here on Wicca Living that go into more depth about everything discussed above. You should also check out the books by Lisa Chamberlain as well as her recommended reading list.

Wicca Religion

Wicca Religion - The Basics

Wicca is a neo-pagan, earth-centered religion that has its modern origins in the teaching and practice of the original English Wiccan, Gerald Gardner (1884-1964). Today, Wicca is experiencing dramatic growth as teens reject what they perceive as Christian paternalism, homophobia, and insensitivity to the environment. While stereotypes of Wiccans as Satanists or sinister spell-casters are spurious, the worldviews of Christianity and Wicca are nonetheless worlds apart.

First, Wicca religion, also known as “The Craft” or “The Old Religion,” holds that all reality is divine. Thus, Wiccans reverence the natural world as a living, breathing organism, and revere people as “gods” and “goddesses.” As Wicca is a distinctively feminist form of neo-paganism, however, Wiccans often consider the supreme manifestation of deity to be a nature goddess (e.g., the Triple Goddess of the Moon). In sharp contrast to the Christian worldview, Wiccans worship creation rather than the Creator (cf. Romans 1:25).

Wicca Religion - Relative Truth

Furthermore, the supreme ethical rule of Wicca is the Wiccan Rede: ‘if it harms none, do as ye Will.’ Despite this proscription against harming others, Wiccans hold that moral and religious truths are ultimately relative. Thus, while the Wiccan Rede sets the Craft apart from the malevolent activities of Satanists, the Wiccan worldview stands in direct opposition to the biblical notions of absolute moral truth and exclusive salvation through Jesus Christ who alone is “the way and the truth and the life” (John 14:6).

Wicca Religion - Magick

Finally, Wiccans practice magick (spelled with a ‘k’ to differentiate it from conjuring for entertainment) in an attempt to manipulate the natural world and alter mental and material conditions. As such, Wicca is an esoteric occult practice designed to manipulate reality in concert with the Wiccan’s will. Tools of the Craft include swords and spell books, as well as chalices, censers, cords and crystals. Regardless of whether the motivation is benevolent or malevolent, Scripture unequivocally condemns all occult practices as detestable to the Lord (Deuteronomy 18:10-12; Acts 13:6-11; Acts 16:16-18; Galatians 5:19-21).

Deuteronomy 18:10-11 says, "Let no one be found among you who sacrifices his son or daughter in the fire, who practices divination or sorcery, interprets omens, engages in witchcraft, or casts spells, or who is a medium or spiritist or who consults the dead.”

Introduction to the Wiccan Religion and Contemporary Paganism

The Wiccan religion, also known as "The Craft," "Wicca," "Benevolent Witchcraft," and "The Old Religion" is a diverse and decentralized religion that is part of contemporary Paganism/Nature Spirituality. Today, there are thousands of individuals and groups practicing various forms of the Wiccan religion and other Pagan/Nature Spirituality paths throughout the United States and around the world.

There are many forms of the Wiccan religion. Hereditary/Family Tradition, Shamanic, Gardnerian, Alexandrian, Celtic, British Traditionalist, Dianic, Faerie, Circle Craft and Eclectic are just some of the variety of Wiccan traditions, or paths. In addition to Wiccans, Contemporary Paganism includes Pantheists, Goddess Spirituality folk, Druids, Heathens, Unitarian Universalist Pagans, Polytheist Reconstructionists, Animists, Ecofeminists, ChristoPagans, and other Nature Spirituality practitioners. Within most Wiccan and other Pagan traditions, there are a variety of types of groups as well as individual practitioners. Groups differ widely in size, structure, purpose, orientation, symbology, ritual practices, and other ways. There is even more variation among those practicing Wiccan/Pagan spirituality on their own without being part of a group that meets regularly. Some Wiccan and Pagan traditions are initiatory; others are not. Initiatory practices vary from tradition to tradition and include initiations by deities and spiritual helpers through dreams and vigils/vision quests, self-initiations, and initiations by teachers and groups.

Although there are many differences, there are also some spiritual practices and philosophies that Wiccans and other Pagans tend to have in common. They love and respect Nature and seek to live in harmony with the rest of the ecosphere. Many have personal communication and friendships with various animals, plants and other lifeforms. They honor the cycles of Nature. Many do rituals at New and Full Moon times and also at the eight seasonal Festivals, called Sabbats, spaced six to seven weeks apart throughout the year and coinciding with the Solstices, Equinoxes and midpoints between, usually called the "Cross Quarters." Samhain, popularly known as Halloween, is the New Year in most Wiccan and many Pagan traditions.

The Wiccan religion and other forms of Paganism are pantheistic in that the Divine is seen as everywhere and in everything. They also are animistic in that every human, tree, animal, stream, rock, and other forms of Nature is seen to have a Divine Spirit within. Many traditions have a monotheistic dimension in that there is an honoring of Divine Unity. They also are polytheistic in that the Divine is honored in a variety of Divine forms, including Goddesses, Gods, and other spiritual forces.

Wiccans and other Pagans also honor the Elements of Nature -- Earth, Air, Fire, Water, Spirit -- and their associated directions -- North, East, South, West, Center -- in the sacred Circles where rituals are held. Rituals usually include a combination of meditation, invocations, movement, music, and the use of magical tools.

As part of their spiritual practice, many Wiccans and other Pagans develop their intuitive abilities and practice magic, directing psychic energy for particular healing and helping purposes. In working magic, Wiccans adhere to the Wiccan Rede, a form of the Golden Rule, which is the central ethical law of the religion: "An it harm none, do what you will." Most Wiccans acknowledge that whatever magical force is sent out returns magnified to the sender. Wiccans do not perform evil magic and do not worship the devil or Satan, which is the anti-God of the Christians. The Wiccan religion is pre-Christian and post-Christian, not anti-Christian.

Although the Wiccan religion and other forms of Contemporary Paganism draw on ancient roots, especially from pre-Christian Europe, they also embody the new. Many practitioners are creating new chants, meditations and rituals, and are sharing them with o

with others through publications, correspondence and face-to-face contact at gatherings, festivals, conferences, and conventions that bring those of many paths together.

To become more involved with Wiccan, Pagan, and Nature Spiritualities, we suggest:

Read, watch, and listen to Wiccan and other Pagan publications, blogs, websites, podcasts, videos and social media from a variety of sources in order to learn about different viewpoints, practices and philosophies.

Read Wiccan and Pagan books, such as The Spiral Dance by Starhawk; Drawing Down the Moon by Margot Adler; Paganism: An Introduction to Earth Centered Spirituality by River & Joyce Higginbotham; and Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner by Scott Cunningham. These and other books are available from a variety of sources, including Circle Sanctuary's online and on-site Resource Shop.

Attend Pagan festivals and meet a wide range of practitioners from different Wiccan/Pagan paths. One of the largest, oldest and most well known of these kinds of festivals is the Pagan Spirit Gathering which we sponsor each year at the Summer Solstice.

Contact others in your area through social media and email, and if and when it seems right, make face-to-face contact. If you are not yet legally an adult and want to get involved with adult practitioners face-to-face, you should discuss this with your parents first and get their permission, or wait until you reach the age of consent and focus on doing reading and personal practice until then. Most groups, teachers and festivals are not open to involvement with those under 18 years of age unless parental permission has been obtained.

Visit Wiccan/Pagan centers and sacred sites. Circle Sanctuary, where our center is headquartered, is open to visitors during our Sabbat Festivals, Full Moons, classes, visiting days, and other events throughout the year..

Take part in classes, seminars, retreats, and/or other learning experiences. Workshops and other training are offered by Circle Sanctuary in person and online through podcasts, as well as through other centers, groups, and traditions.

Become a Circle Sanctuary Member. Membership is open to Pagans and those on related paths of Nature Spirituality who practice forms of spirituality that incorporate a reverence and respect for Nature and have a code of ethics that promotes well-being for self, others, and the planet, and is consistent with the Wiccan Rede (An it harm none, do what you will). Your name and contact information will be kept confidential, unless you elect to have them published through one or more of our networking periodicals.

Spend time spiritually communing with Nature. When you feel ready, do some of the meditations and rituals published online and/or in print. Keep a journal and record your experiences.

Basic Concepts of Wicca

There's an old saying that if you ask any ten Wiccans about their spiritual beliefs, you'll get at least fifteen different answers. That's not far from the truth, because with hundreds of thousands of Americans practicing Wicca today (and the actual numbers remain unclear), there are thousands of different Wiccan groups in existence. There is no one governing body over Wicca, nor is there a "Wiccan Bible" that lays down a universal set of guidelines. While specific practices vary from one group to the next, there are a few ideals and beliefs common to nearly all modern Wiccan groups.

Keep in mind that not all Pagans are Wiccans, and not all Pagan traditions have the same set of principles as the core beliefs of modern Wicca.

Origins of Wicca

Wicca as a religion was introduced by Gerald Gardner in the 1950s. Gardner's tradition was oathbound, initiatory, and secret. However, after a few years, splinter groups began forming, and new traditions were established. Today, many Wiccan groups owe their basic foundation to the principles laid out by Gardner. Wicca is not an ancient religion, but Gardner did incorporate some old esoteric knowledge into his original tradition, including Eastern mysticism, Kabbalah, and British legend.

Calling Upon the Divine

Wicca acknowledges the polarity of the Divine, which means that both the male and female deities are often honored. A Wiccan may honor simply a non-specific god and goddess, or they may choose to worship specific deities of their tradition, whether it be Isis and Osiris, Cerridwen and Herne, or Apollo and Athena. In Gardnerian Wicca, the true names of the gods are revealed only to initiated members, and are kept secret from anyone outside the tradition.

Initiation and Degree Systems

In most Wiccan covens, there is some form of initiation and a degree system. Initiation is a symbolic rebirth, in which the initiants dedicate themselves to the gods of their tradition. Typically, only an individual who has attained the rank of Third Degree dedicant may act as a High Priest or High Priestess. Study is required before an individual may advance to the next degree level, and often this is the traditional "year and a day" period.

Someone who is not a member of a coven or formal group may choose to perform a self-dedication ritual to pledge themselves to the gods of their path.

Magic Happens

The belief in and use of magic and spellwork is nearly universal within Wicca. This is because, for most Wiccans, there's nothing supernatural about magic at all. Instead, Wiccans view magic as the harnessing and redirection of natural energy to effect change in the world around us. In Wicca, magic is simply another skill set or tool. Most Wiccans do use specific tools in spellcrafting, such as an athame, wand, herbs, crystals, and candles. Magical workings are often performed within a sacred circle.

The use of magic is not limited only to the priesthood; anyone can craft and perform a spell with a little bit of practice.

In some magical traditions, there are guidelines as to how and why magic should be performed. For instance, some Wiccans adhere to the Law of Threefold Return, or the Rule of Three, and others may follow the Wiccan Rede. This is not necessarily universal, though, so if you're not part of a group that mandates these guidelines, you might opt not to follow them. Magic can be incorporated into ritual, or it can be used as a stand-alone practice.

The Spirit World is Out There

The concept of an afterlife is typical in most branches of Wicca, and there is a general willingness to accept interaction with the spirit world. Seances and contact with the unknown are not uncommon among Wiccans, although not all Wiccans actively seek communication with the dead. Divination such as tarot, runes, and astrology are often used as well. Whether you're holding a seance or dumb supper, or simply trying to identify and find your spirit guide, it's commonly accepted that the dead and other entities are out there and can be reached through various methods of communication.

Basic Beliefs of Wicca

While not exclusive to every single tradition, the following beliefs are some of the core tenets found in most Wiccan systems.

Divine in Nature: Most Wiccans believe that the Divine is present in nature, and so nature should be honored and respected. Everything from animals and plants to trees and rocks are elements of the sacred. You'll find that many practicing Wiccans are passionate about the environment. In addition, the Divine has polarity: both male and female. In most paths of Wicca, both a god and goddess are honored. The Divine is present in all of us. We are all sacred beings, and interaction with the gods is not limited just to the priesthood or a select group of individuals.

Karma and the Afterlife: For many Wiccans, the idea of karma and an afterlife is a valid one, although the Neowiccan view of Karma is very different than the traditional Eastern perspective. What we do in this lifetime will be revisited upon us in the next. Part of this idea of a cosmic payback system is echoed in the Law of Threefold Return. In addition, generally speaking, Wicca does not embrace the concepts of sin, heaven, or hell.

Ancestry: Our ancestors should be spoken of with honor. Because it's not considered out of the ordinary to commune with the spirit world, many Wiccans feel that their ancestors are watching over them at all times.

Holidays: Holidays are based on the turning of the earth and the cycle of the seasons. In Wicca, eight major Sabbats, or days of power, are celebrated, as well as monthly Esbats.

Personal Responsibility: Everyone is responsible for their own actions. Personal responsibility is the key. Whether magical or mundane, one must be willing to accept the consequences, either good or bad, of their behavior.

Avoid Causing Harm: "Harm none" is a common theme in many Wiccan traditions. While there are a few different interpretation of what actually constitutes harm, most Wiccans follow the concept that no harm should intentionally be done to another individual.

Respect for Other Beliefs: Wiccan groups generally avoid proselytizing. In Wicca, practitioners recognize that each individual must find their spiritual path on their own, without coercion.

Wicca, Witchcraft or Paganism?

As you study and learn more about magical living and modern Paganism, you're going to see the words witch, Wiccan, and Pagan pretty regularly, but they're not all the same. As if that wasn't confusing enough, we often discuss Paganism and Wicca, as if they're two different things. So what's the deal? Is there a difference between the three? Quite simply, yes, but it's not as cut and dried as you might imagine.

Wicca is a tradition of Witchcraft that was brought to the public by Gerald Gardner in the 1950s. There is a great deal of debate among the Pagan community about whether or not Wicca is truly the same form of Witchcraft that the ancients practiced. Regardless, many people use the terms Wicca and Witchcraft interchangeably. Paganism is an umbrella term used to apply to a number of different earth-based faiths. Wicca falls under that heading, although not all Pagans are Wiccan.

So, in a nutshell, here's what's going on. All Wiccans are witches, but not all witches are Wiccans. All Wiccans are Pagans, but not all Pagans are Wiccans. Finally, some witches are Pagans, but some are not - and some Pagans practice witchcraft, while others choose not to.

If you’re reading this page, chances are you’re either a Wiccan or Pagan, or you’re someone who’s interested in learning more about the modern Pagan movement. You may be a parent who’s curious about what your child is reading, or you might be someone who is unsatisfied with the spiritual path you’re on right now. Perhaps you’re seeking something more than what you’ve had in the past. You might be someone who’s practiced Wicca or Paganism for years, and who just wants to learn more.

For many people, the embracing of an earth-based spirituality is a feeling of “coming home”. Often, people say that when they first discovered Wicca, they felt like they finally fit in. For others, it’s a journey TO something new, rather than running away from something else.

Paganism is an Umbrella Term

Please bear in mind that there are dozens of different traditions that fall under the umbrella title of “Paganism.” While one group may have a certain practice, not everyone will follow the same criteria. Statements made on this site referring to Wiccans and Pagans generally refer to MOST Wiccans and Pagans, with the acknowledgment that not all practices are identical.

Not All Pagans are Wiccans

There are many Witches who are not Wiccans. Some are Pagans, but some consider themselves something else entirely.

Just to make sure everyone’s on the same page, let’s clear up one thing right off the bat: not all Pagans are Wiccans. The term “Pagan” (derived from the Latin paganus, which translates roughly to “hick from the sticks”) was originally used to describe people who lived in rural areas. As time progressed and Christianity spread, those same country folk were often the last holdouts clinging to their old religions. Thus, “Pagan” came to mean people who didn’t worship the god of Abraham.

In the 1950s, Gerald Gardner brought Wicca to the public, and many contemporary Pagans embraced the practice. Although Wicca itself was founded by Gardner, he based it upon old traditions. However, a lot of Witches and Pagans were perfectly happy to continue practicing their own spiritual path without converting to Wicca.

Therefore, “Pagan” is an umbrella term that includes many different spiritual belief systems – Wicca is just one of many.

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Other Religions Paganism and Wicca

Wicca, Witchcraft or Paganism?

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Sarah Swinford / EyeEm / Getty Images

Patti Wigington

Updated January 12, 2019

Paganism is an Umbrella Term

Not All Pagans are Wiccans

There are many Witches who are not Wiccans. Some are Pagans, but some consider themselves something else entirely.

Therefore, “Pagan” is an umbrella term that includes many different spiritual belief systems – Wicca is just one of many.

In Other Words...

Christian > Lutheran or Methodist or Jehovah’s Witness

Pagan > Wiccan or Asatru or Dianic or Eclectic Witchcraft

As if that wasn’t confusing enough, not all people who practice witchcraft are Wiccans or even Pagans. There are a few witches who embrace the Christian god as well as a Wiccan goddess – the Christian Witch movement is alive and well! There are also peopl

people out there who practice Jewish mysticism, or "Jewitchery," and atheist witches who practice magic but do not follow a deity.

What About Magic?

There are a number of people who consider themselves Witches, but who are not necessarily Wiccan or even Pagan. Typically, these are people who use the term "eclectic Witch" or to apply to themselves. In many cases, Witchcraft is seen as a skill set in addition to or instead of a religious system. A witch may practice magic in a manner completely separate from their spirituality; in other words, one does not have to interact with the Divine to be a witch.

For others, Witchcraft is considered a religion, in addition to a select group of practices and beliefs. It’s the use of magic and ritual within a spiritual context, a practice that brings us closer to the gods of whatever traditions we may happen to follow. If you want to consider your practice of witchcraft as a religion, you can certainly do so – or if you see your practice of witchcraft as simply a skill set and not a religion, then that’s acceptable too.

Myths and Misconceptions: The Truth About Wicca and Paganism

There are a lot of myths and misconceptions about Wicca and other Pagan religions, most of which are perpetuated by people who (a) don't know any better and (b) have never taken the time to learn the truth. Let's talk about some of the most common bits of misinformation people hear about Wicca and modern Paganism.

Is Wicca Some Weird Cult?

No, it's not, no more so than any other religion. Sure, there are some "weird" Wiccans, but there are also people in other religions who are "weird." Wicca is actually a religion, albeit a fairly new one, which is based on ancient practices. Although it was founded by a guy named Gerald Gardner back in the 1950s, it is still a legally recognized religion. Wiccans have the same religious rights as people of any other spiritual path. Some people do tend to get confused, though, because the word "occult," which means secret or mysterious, is often associated with the Wiccan religion.

Do Witches Worship the Devil?

No. Satan is a Christian construct, and Wiccans don't worship him. Even the Satanists don't actually worship Satan, but that's a whole other conversation.

You Guys Have Sex Orgies, Right?

Nope. However, most Pagans and Wiccans are pretty liberal when it comes to sexuality. We don't care who you sleep with, as long as everyone involved is a consenting adult. We don't care if you're straight, gay, transgender, polyamorous, or anything else. Who you have sex with, and how often, and in what manner is your business. We just hope that whatever you're doing, you do responsibly. There are some Wiccan groups who practice skyclad, or nude, but that's not really sexual in nature.

Why Do You Use that Satanic Symbol With the Star on It?

You mean the pentacle? That's a symbol, for many Wiccans and Pagans, of the four classical elements: earth, air, fire, and water, as well as a fifth element of Spirit or Self.

Do Wiccans Cast Spells?

Yes. In Wicca and many other Pagan paths, the use of magic is considered perfectly natural. It's not the same as the magic seen in Harry Potter, but for Wiccans, magic is part of the natural world. Some spells take the form of prayers to the gods, and others are based on direction of will and intent. Most Wiccans will tell you they use spellwork for a variety of things—healing, personal empowerment, prosperity, etc. Magic is a tool that is typically used in tandem with the mundane, or non-magical, world.

What's the Difference Between a Wiccan and a Pagan?

Nearly all Wiccans are Pagans, but not all Pagans are Wiccans. As if that wasn't puzzling enough, there are some people who are witches, but not Wiccan or Pagan. Confused yet? You're not alone. Basically, "Pagan" is an umbrella term for a group of different spiritual paths. For more on how this works, read What's the Difference?

Why Do People Become Wiccans?

The reasons are as varied as the people. Some find themselves drawn to Wicca because of a dissatisfaction with other religions. Others study a variety of religions and then realize that Wicca is the most compatible with what they already believe. A few people who are practicing Wiccans and Pagans today were raised in Pagan families. Regardless, nearly every Wiccan will tell you that they came to Wicca because they knew it was the right path for them.

How Do You Recruit New Wiccans Into Your Religion?

We don't. Although we'll happily share information with you and answer your questions, we're not interested in collecting new recruits.

Aren't You Worried That You're Going to Hell?

Well, no. Much like Satan, the concept of Hell is a Christian one. It's not really even on our radar. However, there are a few people -- typically those who have come to Wicca from a Christian background —who do worry about this very issue. For the rest of us, we know that the future of our soul does not depend on salvation or acceptance of deity as a savior. Instead, we focus on doing good things, because we know that what we do in this lifetime will echo upon us in the next.

Do You Believe in God?

Wiccans and Pagans are typically polytheistic, which means we believe in more than one deity. If you look at "god" as a job title rather than a proper name, we believe in a variety of gods and goddesses, rather than One Single God. Most Pagans and Wiccans acknowledge the existence of thousands of deities, but generally, worship or honor only the gods of their own tradition.

So What do Wiccans Do and Believe, Then?

Excellent question, and not a simple one with just a single answer. To learn about what Wiccans do and believe, read Basic Principles and Concepts of Wicca and Ten Things To Know About Wicca.

Paganism and Wicca

Learn more about Pagan beliefs, the Wiccan religion, Pagan holidays and celebrations, and how people practice Wicca and Paganism today.

An Introduction to Paganism and Wicca

Learn about the basic beliefs and concepts of Paganism and Wicca, plus useful tips on how to get started in practice, reading lists, and introductory guides to many aspects of magical living.

Basic Concepts of Wicca

Keep in mind that not all Pagans are Wiccans, and not all Pagan traditions have the same set of principles as the core beliefs of modern Wicca.

Origins of Wicca

Calling Upon the Divine

Initiation and Degree Systems

Someone who is not a member of a coven or formal group may choose to perform a self-dedication ritual to pledge themselves to the gods of their path.

Magic Happens

The use of magic is not limited only to the priesthood; anyone can craft and perform a spell with a little bit of practice.

The Spirit World is Out There

Basic Beliefs of Wicca

While not exclusive to every single tradition, the following beliefs are some of the core tenets found in most Wiccan systems.

Holidays: Holidays are based on the turning of the earth and the cycle of the seasons. In Wicca, eight major Sabbats, or days of power, are celebrated, as well as monthly Esbats.

Respect for Other Beliefs: Wiccan groups generally avoid proselytizing. In Wicca, practitioners recognize that each individual must find their spiritual path on their own, without coercion.

Celebrate Litha With Summer Solstice Recipes

Litha is the celebration of the summer solstice—and what's a Sabbat without food? Take advantage of the summer crops of fruit and vegetables, and prepare a simple and delicious feast for your Midsummer gatherings.

Did You Know?

Litha is a celebration of the summer solstice, so use seasonally appropriate foods in your feast.

Savory, fiery flavors are great to use this time of year—and the more fresh produce you can use, the better.

If possible, try to do a field (or garden) to table dinner often during the summer months.

Litha is a great time to take advantage of nature’s abundance—there’s stuff blooming everywhere—and brewing batch of homemade mead is an excellent way to do this! Mead is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented honey, so what better way to celebrate the summer?

First, let’s look at a brief history of mead, which is believed to have originated in Africa, somewhere around 20,000 years ago. Nomadic people figured out that when bees nested in trees, and their honey combined with water and osmotolerant yeast spores, the end result was a tasty drinkable beverage. As these nomadic groups moved north, towards the Mediterranean, they took this knowledge (and their yeast) along with them, and mead stayed pretty popular in Europe for thousands of years.

As people moved into more urban communities, and out of rural areas, interest in honey and mead waned. Once sugar cane was discovered, which was a lot less expensive than honey; pretty much the only people making mead were monks. This was because they used beeswax to make candles for monasteries, so they had plenty of honey on hand from the hives.

Lately, however, there’s been a resurgence in the popularity of mead. You can make your own batch fairly easily–it’s not hard, just time consuming. There are a number of great mead recipes online, and many of them include some fairly fancy ingredients, but the three included here are the easiest to do for a beginning meadmaker.

Will over at Storm the Castle has a great recipe for easy mead that you can make with stuff you probably already have in your pantry: Cheap, Fast and Easy Mead Recipe

Try this really basic recipe over at Epicurious, which uses a lot of honey and some mead yeast to make a five-gallon batch.

Arkady from Amazing Mead has a variation on the Storm the Castle recipe, which gives the mead a nice spicy flavor: Spiced Mead

You’ll probably notice that all three of these recipes emphasize sterilizing your mead brewing equipment. Really, that can’t be stressed enough—no one wants to have moldy mead, and you sure don’t want to be known as The Friend Who Gave Everyone Botulism. Follow the instructions to the letter, and you’ll end up with an amazing batch of delicious drink to share with your friends and family during your summer celebrations!

Other Religions Paganism and Wicca

Celebrate Litha With Summer Solstice Recipes

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Hero Images / Getty Images

Patti Wigington

Updated April 03, 2019

Did You Know?

Litha is a celebration of the summer solstice, so use seasonally appropriate foods in your feast.

Savory, fiery flavors are great to use this time of year—and the more fresh produce you can use, the better.

If possible, try to do a field (or garden) to table dinner often during the summer months.

Brew a Batch of Midsummer Mead

Brew your own midsummer mead. Alissa Sanderson / Getty Images

Will over at Storm the Castle has a great recipe for easy mead that you can make with stuff you probably already have in your pantry: Cheap, Fast and Easy Mead Recipe

Try this really basic recipe over at Epicurious, which uses a lot of honey and some mead yeast to make a five-gallon batch.

Arkady from Amazing Mead has a variation on the Storm the Castle recipe, which gives the mead a nice spicy flavor: Spiced Mead

Continue Reading Below

Fiery Grilled Salmon

Burcu Atalay Tankut / Getty Images

In Celtic lore, the salmon is associated with knowledge. In fact, the first person to taste this delicious fish was granted all kinds of wisdom! At the summer solstice, certainly a time of fire, why not toss a salmon into the flame so you can partake of its vast knowledge? This simple dish can be prepared out on your grill to keep the kitchen cool, and tastes just as good cold the next day on top of a salad.

Ingredients:

2 lbs salmon fillets, skin on

1/4 C. soy sauce

1/4 C. Dijon mustard

1 tsp. cayenne pepper

3 cloves garlic, minced

1/4 C. olive oil

Preparation:

Combine the olive oil, soy sauce, Dijon mustard, garlic and cayenne pepper in a bowl and whisk together. Using a barbeque brush, brush half of the soy sauce mix onto the salmon fillets. Place them sauce-side down (skin-side up) on the grill for about six to seven minut

the grill for about six to seven minutes. Brush the remainder of the sauce onto the skin side, and use a large spatula to flip the fillets over. Grill for another five minutes or so and remove from heat. Allow the fillets to sit for about ten minutes before serving on a bed of your favorite greens and summer vegetables.

Note: A well cooked fish is one that isn't too dry. When you remove the salmon from the grill, it may seem undercooked in the center. However, once it sits for ten minutes, the heat in the juices will make it finish cooking. Don't cook salmon until it "looks cooked" in the middle, because by then it will dry out and lose its flavor.

Fennel has a rich, licorice-like flavor, and lends itself well to a cool summer salad. Add a bit of fruit to offset the savoriness of the fennel, top with a light mustard vinaigrette, and you've got the perfect salad to serve as a side or main course.

Ingredients:

1 large fennel bulb

2 fresh oranges

1 Granny Smith apple

3 green onions

1/4 C. water

3 Tbs. balsamic vinegar

2 Tbs. olive oil

2 Tbs. honey mustard

1 Tbs. chopped fresh rosemary

1 garlic clove, minced

Preparation:

Shave the fennel into thin pieces (use a mandoline if you have one), and toss it into a bowl. Peel and divide the oranges, and chunk up the Granny Smith apples, dice the green onions, and add all these to the fennel.

Combine the water, balsamic vinegar, olive oil, honey mustard, rosemary and garlic in a bowl and whisk until blended. Drizzle over the fennel and fruit salad.

These snack wraps are easy to make, and can be prepped ahead of time and chilled in the fridge. They work nicely as an appetizer for any summer menu, or you can put together a variety of them as a main course for a light dinner.

Ingredients:

10 flour tortillas

1 package cream cheese, softened

1 Tbs. fresh dill

1 garlic clove, minced

1 C. shredded lettuce

1 C. shredded carrots

1 C. diced tomato

1 lb. chicken breast, cooked and diced

2 C. your favorite cheese, shredded

Preparation:

Mix the dill and garlic into the cream cheese, and stir until blended. Spread the cream cheese mixture evenly onto the tortillas. In layers, add the lettuce, carrots, tomato and chicken breast. Top with cheese.

To roll the tortillas up, fold the bottom of the tortilla up, and then fold in from one side. Use a toothpick to keep it from unrolling, and chill for an hour or so before serving.

Veggie-lover's option: Instead of the chicken, used diced and cooked tofu, seasoned with a bit of teriyaki or soy sauce. You can also use chopped cucumbers or peppers. For a gluten-free alternative, use brown rice tortillas instead of flour.

Ginger is a root vegetable found in a lot of Asian cuisine, but it can be grown all over the world. To make this recipe, you'll need about a pound of ginger root, which you can either grow yourself or pick up at your local grocery store. Candy it with sugar and corn syrup, then store it for a fiery and sweet snack combination!

Ingredients:

1 lb ginger root

3 Cups white sugar, divided

2 Cups water

1/2 Cup white corn syrup

Preparation:

Peel the skin from the ginger root completely, and chop into small pieces.

Combine 2 cups of sugar, the water and the corn syrup in a crock pot and bring to high heat, stirring occasionally. Once the sugar has melted, add the ginger to the liquid. Cover, reduce heat, and allow to simmer overnight, or for about 12 hours.

Once the ginger has simmered overnight, drain off liquid. Place ginger in a bowl with the remaining 1 cup of sugar, and toss so that it's completely coated. Pour our on a sheet of wax paper to cool (it helps to put them on a baking tray in the fridge). Store in an airtight container, and snack on whenever you need a fiery pick-me-u

Rituals and Ceremonies

Wiccans and Pagans have a number of rituals and celebrations. Learn about covens and degree systems, initiation, Sabbat and Esbat rites, and other milestones such as handfastings, birth, and death.

Many people like to use crystals for healing and wellness of both the physical and spiritual kind. Whether you're working with crystals for a specific purpose, such as health or love, or for a general well-being ritual, you may find that placing your crystals in a grid-style layout can amplify their metaphysical power. Let's take a look at what a crystal grid is, how to create one, and how to use it.

Key Takeaways

Crystal grids are used in many metaphysical disciplines to bring about healing, spiritual well-being, and transformation.

You can use any kind of crystal in your grid, but be sure that its properties correspond to your intent and purpose.

By using sacred geometry, you can enhance and boost the power and energy of the crystals.

What Is a Crystal Grid?

In some forms of metaphysical practice, crystals are laid out in a grid, following patterns of sacred geometry, to give their power and energy a boost. While you can certainly buy a crystal grid kit, complete with a cloth or board that has a pre-printed design on it and a whole bunch of crystals of varying properties, it's fairly easy to make and design your own.

The principle is a simple one: crystals are chosen based on the purpose of the working, and then laid out in a geometric pattern. Once they are spread out, they are programmed or charged with energy to bring about healing or other desired outcomes. You can arrange them in a spiral, a wheel, a heart, or any other type of design you like. The key is to select a pattern that resonates with you spiritually.

Crystal grids can be used for a variety of purposes. In Crystals for Healing, author Karen Frazier suggests,

"Crystal grids can be created to amplify the power of the crystals, to protect or cleanse spaces, or to direct healing towards someone else. The center stone is typically larger than the rest, with smaller stones in a geometric pattern around the center stone. You can create squares, rectangles, circles, rhomboids, triangles, and similar shapes, depending on the number of stones you are using. Although grids don't necessarily have to be geometric, this is a good place to start."

It is believed that by placing your crystals in a distinct and intentional pattern, you can manifest results more quickly and efficiently than you would if you used a single crystal in a working or ritual.

So you've decided to give crystal grids a try. Here are a few general guidelines to keep in mind—and remember, these are guidelines, not rules.

First, select which crystals you're going to use. Plan on using at least four, and remember that more is perfectly acceptable. You can either use multiple crystals of the same type, or you can use a combination of different kinds, depending on what your goal is. Ideally, you'll want to choose a larger crystal for the center, and smaller ones for the outer part of the grid. You can use crystal points if you like, but it's not required.

Once you've chosen your crystals, gather them and charge and cleanse them. There are a number of ways you can do this. Consider cleansing them by leaving them out in the sun, or under a full moon, for a while. Crystals that are non-porous, such as amethyst or hematite, can be cleansed in water blended with sea salt. You can also smudge your crystals using the smoke from burning sage or sweetgrass.

After you've cleansed your crystals, charge them by holding them in your hands, closing your eyes, and focusing all of your intention upon them. For instance, if you're doing a crystal working for healing, visualize healing energy filling each of your crystals.

Crystal Combinations

You can use different combinations of crystals in your grids, if you don't want to just use a single type. Try some of these mixes of crystals to enhance your grid:

For healing rituals, use a combination of rose quartz, tourmaline, jasper, agate, and amethyst crystals. You can also use stones that represent the seven chakras for a general overall wellness working.

If you'd like to do a general working for personal empowerment, try a mix of carnelian, sunstone, and clear quartz.

For a grid designed to banish someone or something negative from your life, incorporate onyx, jade, obsidian, and hematite into your design.

Be sure to figure out your intention before you start placing your crystals into a grid pattern.

Be sure to cleanse and purify the space in which you'll be working. If creating a crystal grid is a sacred and spiritual act, you should be doing it in a place that is sacred and spiritual. You can cleanse your workspace by smudging, asperging, or sprinkling sea salt around the perimeter.

Choose a basic geometric pattern, a spiral, a pentacle, or circles—whichever speaks to you the most. There are hundreds of examples of sacred geometry out there, so check out some of the many designs available. You can even use a mandala as a template.

You can draw or paint your grid design on paper, cloth, or wood, but you don't necessarily have to have the lines in front of you. In fact, many people simply lay their crystals out in a pattern without using pre-drawn lines. Do what feels most natural to you.

Begin by placing your largest crystal in the center of the grid, then place smaller stones around it, working your way outward. Keep in mind that in some metaphysical schools of thought, the design is created from the outside working in. Regardless of which method you choose, try to be consistent, and place your crystals at even intervals. It's a good idea to use an even number of crystals on each side of the grid so that you can maintain the symmetry of the design.

In some magical traditions, people write their goal or intention on a piece of paper, then place the paper in the center of the grid, beneath the largest stone. You don't have to do this, but you may find that it helps you establish a more targeted focus for your crystal grid.

Using Your Crystal Grid

Once you've laid out your crystal grid, take a moment to admire your work. Close your eyes, breathe deeply, and focus on your intention once more. Open your eyes, and slowly use one finger on your dominant hand to trace a line from one stone to the next, making sure you touch all of them without breaking the line. This will connect the stones to one another, to the grid, and to you metaphysically.

If you've laid your stones out in a wheel or square pattern, be sure to move your finger from the outer stones to the center one, creating a spoke-like energy pattern. This essentially "activates" your crystal grid and the power contained within the stones you've chosen.

Leave your grid in place, with the crystals on it, for as long as you feel is necessary. Every three days, go back and retrace your lines, and re-focus your intent upon your magical crystal grid.

Magical Grounding, Centering, and Shielding Techniques

Centering is the beginning of energy work, and if your tradition's magical practices are based upon the manipulation of energy, then you'll need to learn to center. If you've done any meditation before, it may be a bit easier for you to center, because it uses many of the same techniques. Here's how to get started.

Do keep in mind that each magical tradition has its own definition of what centering is. This is a simple exercise that can work for you, but if your magical practice has a different viewpoint of what centering is and how to do it, try some different options.

First, find a place where you can work undisturbed. If you're at home, take the phone off the hook, lock the door, and turn off the television. You should try to do this in a seated position—and that's simply because some people fall asleep if they get too relaxed lying down! Once you're seated, take a deep breath, and exhale. Repeat this a few times, until you are breathing evenly and regularly. This will help you relax. Some people find that it's easier to regulate their breathing if they count, or if they chant a simple tone, like "Om," as they inhale and exhale. The more often you do this, the easier it will become.

Once your breathing is regulated and even, it's time to begin visualizing energy. This may seem weird if you've never done it before. Rub the palms of your hands lightly together, as though you were trying to warm them, and then move them an inch or two apart. You should still feel a charge, a tingling sensation between your palms. That's energy. If you don't feel it at first, don't worry. Just try again. Eventually, you'll start to notice that the space between your hands feels different. It's almost as though there's a bit of resistance pulsating there if you gently bring them back together.

After you've mastered this, and can tell what energy feels like, you can start playing with it. This means you can focus on that area of resistance. Close your eyes, and feel it. Now, visualize that tingly area expanding and contracting, like a balloon. Some people believe you can try pulling your hands apart, and stretching that energy field out as if you were pulling taffy with your fingers. Try visualizing the energy expanding to the point where it surrounds your entire body. After some practice, according to a few traditions, you'll even be able to fling it from one hand to the other, as if you were tossing a ball back and forth. Bring it into your body, and draw it inward, shaping a ball of energy inside yourself. It's important to note that this energy (in some traditions called an aura) is all around us at all times. You're not creating something new, but simply harnessing what's already there.

Each time you center, you'll repeat this process. Begin by regulating your breathing. Then focus on your energy. Eventually, you should be able to control it completely. The core of your energy can be wherever it feels most natural for you—for most people, it's ideal to keep their energy centered around the solar plexus, although others find the heart chakra to be the place where they can focus on it best.

After you've been doing this for a while, it will become second nature. You'll be able to center anywhere, any time, sitting on a crowded bus, stuck in a boring meeting, or driving down the street (although for that one, you should keep your eyes open). By learning to center, you'll develop a foundation for energy work in many different magical traditions.

Ever perform a ritual and then feel all jittery and shaky afterward? Have you done a working, only to find yourself sitting up into the wee hours of the morning, with an oddly heightened sense of clarity and awareness? Sometimes, if we fail to center properly before a ritual, we can end up a bit off-kilter. In other words, you’ve gone and amped up your energy level, it's been increased by magical working, and now you've got to burn some of it away. This is when the practice of grounding comes in very handy. It's a way of getting rid of some of that excess energy you've stored up. Once this is done, you'll be able to regulate yourself and feel normal again.

Grounding is fairly easy. Remember how you manipulated energy when you learned to center? That's what you'll do to ground—only instead of drawing that energy inside you, you'll push it out, into something else. Close your eyes and focus on your energy. Get it under control so that it's manageable—and then, using your hands, push it into the ground, a bucket of water, a tree, or some other object that can absorb it.

Some people prefer to fling their energy into the air, as a way of eliminating it, but this should be done with caution—if you're around other magically inclined people, one of them may inadvertently absorb what you're getting rid of, and then they're in the same position you've just been in.

Another method is to push the excess energy down, through your legs and feet, and into the ground. Focus on your energy, and feel it draining away, as though someone had pulled a plug out of your feet. Some people find it helpful to bounce up and down a bit, to help shake out the last of the excess energy.

If you're someone who needs to feel something a bit more tangible, try one of these ideas out:

Carry a stone or crystal in your pocket. When you're feeling over-energized, let the stone absorb your energy.

Make a pot of "angry dirt." Keep a pot of soil outside your door. When you need to shed that excess energy, plunge your hands into the dirt and then feel the energy transfer into the soil.

Create a catchphrase to trigger grounding—it can be something as simple as "Aaaaand it's gone!" This phrase can be used as an energy release when you need it.

If you've spent any time in the metaphysical or Pagan community, you've probably heard people use the term "shielding." Shielding is a way of protecting yourself from psychic, mental, or magical attack—it's a way of creating an energy barrier around yourself that other people can't penetrate. Think about the Star Trek series, when the Enterprise would activate its deflector shields. The magical shield works much the same way.

Remember that energy exercise you did when you learned how to center? When you ground, you push excess energy out of your body. When you shield, you envelope yourself with it. Focus on your energy core, and expand it outward so that it covers your entire body. Ideally, you'll want it to extend past the surface of your body so that it's almost as though you're walking around in a bubble. People who can see auras often recognize shielding in others—attend a metaphysical event, and you may hear someone say, "Your aura is huge!" It's because people who attend these events have often learned how to shield themselves from those would drain them of energy.

When you're forming your energy shield, it's a good idea to visualize the surface of it as being reflective. This not only protects you from negative influences and energy, but it can also repel them back to the original sender. Another way of looking at it is like the tinted windows on your car—it's just enough to let in sunlight and good things, but keeps all the negative away.

If you're someone who is often affected by the emotions of others—if certain people make you feel drained and exhausted by their very presence—then you need to practice shielding techniques, in addition to reading up on Magical Self Defense.

Pagan and Wiccan Prayers for All Occasions

Many Pagans and Wiccans pray to their deities on a regular basis. The prayers on this page are designed to help you pray on specific occasions, or in times of special need. If you're not sure about how to pray as a Wiccan or Pagan, read about the Role of Prayer in Wicca and Paganism. Keep in mind that if these prayers don't quite work for you as they're written, it's okay - you can write your own, or make adjustments to the ones here on this page as needed.

Prayers for Sabbat Celebrations

There is any number of prayers you can say to mark a specific sabbat or day of power. Depending on how you're celebrating, you can incorporate any of these prayers into your rituals and ceremonies. Prayers for the Imbolc sabbat typically focus on the goddess Brighid, the coming end of winter, or other seasonally appropriate themes. When Beltane rolls around, focus your devotionals on the return of new life back to the earth, and on the fertility of the land. Litha, the summer solstice, is all about the power and energy of the sun, and Lammas, or Lughnasadh, is a time for prayers honoring the early grain harvest and the Celtic god Lugh.

Mabon, the autumn equinox, is a time for prayers of abundance and gratitude, while Samhain, the Witches' New Year, is a great season to pray in a way that celebrates your ancestors and the gods of death. Finally, at Yule, the winter solstice, take time to rejoice in the return of the light.

Prayers for Daily Use

If you'd like to work with some basic prayers to mark different aspects of your day, you can always use one of these mealtime prayers. When it comes to bedtime, try one of these prayers for Pagan kids.

Prayers for Times of Life

There are many times in our life that call for simple prayers. Whether you've lost a pet recently, sometimes the healing process can be helped along by offering a prayer for your deceased pet. If you are looking for a celebratory prayer for long life, there is a beautiful one originally written by a monk named Fer Fio mac Fabri. Finally, when it comes time to cross over, incorporate this prayer for the dying into your farewell rituals.

Prayers for Specific Deities

Finally, don't rule out the value of offering prayers to the deities of your tradition. No matter which pantheon you work with, nearly every god or goddess seems to appreciate the effort of prayers. If you follow a Celtic path, try these prayers that celebrate the goddess Brighid, or the horned fertility god Cernunnos. If your belief system leans more towards the Egyptian or a Kemetic structure, offer a devotion to Isis. Many Roman Pagans honor Mars, the god of war, with an invocation calling upon him for strength.

For those who simply honor the goddess in a non-specific form, Doreen Valiente's classic Charge of the Goddess is the perfect prayer for a ritual setting.

More on Pagan Prayer

You can always write your own prayers - after all, a prayer is simply a call from the heart to the gods or goddesses of your belief system. When you write your own, it's your way of letting them know that you honor, respect, and appreciate them. Prayers don't have to be complicated, they simply have to be honest and heartfelt. If you write your own, keep it in your Book of Shadows so you can always find it again later.

If you're just not feeling that creative, don't worry - there are plenty of books out there that are chock full of awesome prayers you can use. Ceisiwr Serith's "Book of Pagan Prayer" is amazing, and full of beautiful devotionals for just about everything you can think of. If you need prayers specifically for death and dying rituals, be sure to check out "The Pagan Book of Living and Dying," by Starhawk and M. Macha Nightmare. You also may wish to check out Alexander Carmichael's "Carmina Gadelica," which - although not specifically Pagan - contains hundreds of prayers, chants, and incantations for different seasons and times of life.

Pagan Holidays and Sabbats

The eight Wiccan and Pagan holidays, known as Sabbats, are celebrated around the world. Based on earth's rotations and seasonal markers, the Sabbats include Samhain, Yule, Imbolc, Ostara, Beltane, Litha, Lammas or Lughnasadh, and Mabon.

Gods and Goddesses of Healing

In many magical traditions, healing rituals are performed in tandem with a petition to the god or goddess of the pantheon who is representative of healing and wellness. If you or a loved one is ill or off-kilter, whether emotionally or physically or spiritually, you may want to investigate this list of deities. There are many, from a variety of cultures, who can be called upon in times of need for healing and wellness magic.

Asclepius was a Greek god who is honored by healers and physicians. He is known as the god of medicine, and his serpent-draped staff, The Rod of Asclepius, is still found as a symbol of medical practice today. Honored by doctors, nurses and scientists alike, Asclepius was a son of Apollo. In some traditions of Hellenic Paganism, he is honored as a god of the underworld - it was for his role in raising the dead Hippolytus (for payment) that Zeus killed Asclepius with a thunderbolt.

According to Theoi.com

"In the Homeric poems Aesculapius does not appear to be considered as a divinity, but merely as a human being, which is indicated by the adjective amumôn, which is never given to a god. No allusion is made to his descent, and he is merely mentioned as the iêtêr amumôn, and the father of Machaon and Podaleirius. (Il. ii. 731, iv. 194, xi. 518.) From the fact that Homer (Od. iv. 232) calls all those who practise the healing art descendants of Paeëon, and that Podaleirius and Machaon are called the sons of Aesculapius, it has been inferred, that Aesculapius and Paeëon are the same being, and consequently a divinity."

Airmed was one of the Tuatha de Danaan in the Irish mythological cycles, and was known for her prowess in healing those who fell in battle. It is said that the world’s healing herbs sprouted from Airmed’s tears as she wept over her fallen brother’s body. She is known in Irish legend as the keeper of the mysteries of herbalism.

Priestess Brandi Auset says in The Goddess Guide: Exploring the Attributes and Correspondences of the Divine Feminine, "[Airmed] collects and organizes herbs for health and healing, and teaches her followers the craft of plant medicine. She guards the secret wells, springs, and rivers of healing, and is worshiped as a goddess of Witchcraft and magic."

Aja (Yoruba)

Aja is a powerful healer in Yoruba legend and thus, in Santerian religious practice. It is said that she is the spirit who taught all other healers their craft. She is a mighty Orisha, and it is believed that if she carries you away but allows you to return after a few days, you will be blessed with her powerful magic.

In 1894, A. B. Ellis wrote in Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa, "Aja, whose name appears to mean a wild vine... carries off persons who meet her into the depths of the forest, and teaches them the medicinal properties of plants; but she never harms anyone. Aja is of human shape, but very diminutive, she being only from one to two feet high. The aja vine is used by women to cure enflamed breasts."

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Apollo (Greek)

Apollo was a god of the sun and of healing magic.

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The son of Zeus by Leto, Apollo was a multi-faceted god. In addition to being the god of the sun, he also presided over music, medicine, and healing. He was at one point identified with Helios, the sun god. As the worship of him spread throughout the Roman empire into the British Isles, he took on many of the aspects of the Celtic deities and was seen as a god of the sun and of healing.

Theoi.com says, "Apollo, though one of the great gods of Olympus, is yet represented in some sort of dependence on Zeus, who is regarded as the source of the powers exercised by his son. The powers ascribed to Apollo are apparently of different kinds, but all are connected with one another."

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Artemis (Greek)

Artemis is the goddess of the hunt, and represented by the bow and arrow.

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Artemis is a daughter of Zeus conceived during a romp with the Titan Leto, according to the Homeric Hymns. She was the Greek goddess of both hunting and childbirth. Her twin brother was Apollo, and like him, Artemis was associated with a wide variety of divine attributes, including powers of healing.

Despite her own lack of children, Artemis was known as a goddess of childbirth, possibly because she assisted her own mother in the delivery of her twin, Apollo. She protected women in labor, but also brought them death and sickness. Numerous cults dedicated to Artemis sprouted up around the Greek world, most of which were connected to women's mysteries and transitional phases, such as childbirth, puberty, and motherhood.

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Babalu Aye (Yoruba)

Lola L. Falantes / Getty Images

Babalu Aye is an Orisha often associated with plague and pestilence in the Yoruba belief system and Santerian practice. However, just as he is connected with disease and illness, he is also tied to its cures. A patron of everything from smallpox to leprosy to AIDS, Babalu Aye is often invoked to heal epidemics and widespread illness.

Catherine Beyer says, "Babalu-Aye is equated with Lazarus, a Biblical beggar man mentioned in one of Jesus's parables. Lazarus' name was also used by an order in the Middle Ages that was established to care for those suffering from leprosy, a disfiguring skin disease."

Bona Dea (Roman)

Bona Dea is a goddess of fertility and women's health. JTBaskinphoto / Getty Images

In ancient Rome, Bona Dea was a goddess of fertility. In an interesting paradox, she was also a goddess of chastity and virginity. Honored originally as an earth goddess, she was an agricultural deity and was often invoked to protect the area from earthquakes. When it comes to healing magic, she can be called upon to heal diseases and disorders relating to fertility and reproduction.

Unlike many Roman goddesses, Bona Dea seems to have been particularly honored by the lower social classes. Slaves and plebian women who were trying to conceive a child might make offerings to her in hopes of being granted a fertile womb.

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Brighid (Celtic)

Brighid is well known as a goddess of healing. foxline / Getty Images

Brighid was a Celtic hearth goddess who is still celebrated today in many parts of Europe and the British Isles. She is honored primarily at Imbolc, and is a goddess who represents the home fires and domesticity of family life, as well as healing and wellness magic.

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Eir (Norse)

In many Norse families, Eir is honored as a spirit of healing. Walter Bibikow / Getty Images

Eir is one of the Valkyries who appears in the Norse poetic eddas, and is designated as a spirit of medicine. She is called upon often in women’s laments, but little is known about her other than her association with healing magic. Her name means help or mercy.

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Febris (Roman)

In ancient Rome, if you or a loved one developed a fever - or worse yet, malaria - you called upon the goddess Febris for assistance. She was invoked to cure such diseases, even though she was associated with bringing them about in the first place. Cicero refers in his writings to her sacred temple on the Palatine Hilland called for the cult of Febris to be abolished.

Artist and writer Thalia Took says,

"She is the fever personified and Her name means just that: "Fever" or "Attack of Fever". She may have been especially a Goddess of Malaria, which was notoriously prevalent in ancient Italy, especially in the swampy regions as the disease is transmitted by mosquito, and She was given offerings by Her worshippers in the hopes of being cured. The classic symptoms of malaria include periods of fever, lasting from four to six hours, which come in cycles of every two to three days, depending on the specific variety of parasite; this would explain the odd phrase "attack of fever", as it was something that came and went, and would support Febris's links with that specific disease."

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Heka (Egyptian)

Heka is the ancient Egyptian god of health and medicine. De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images

Heka was an ancient Egyptian deity associated with health and wellness. The god Heka was incorporated by practitioners into medicine — for the Egyptians, healing was seen as the province of the gods. In other words, medicine was magic, and so to honor Heka was one of the several ways to bring about good health in someone who was ailing.

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Hygieia (Greek)

Hygieia lends her name to the practice of hygiene. Stephen Robson / Getty Images

This daughter of Asclepius lends her name to the practice of hygiene, something that comes in especially handy in healing and medicine even today. While Asclepius was concerned with curing illness, Hygieia’s focus was on preventing it from occurring in the first place. Call upon Hygieia when someone is facing a potential health crisis that may not have developed completely yet.

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Isis (Egyptian)

Isis is a goddess of both magic and healing. A. Dagli Orti / De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images

Although Isis’ main focus is more magic than healing, she does have a strong connection to healing because of her ability to resurrect Osiris, her brother and husband, from the dead following his murder by Set. She is also a goddess of fertility and motherhood.

After Set murdered and dismembered Osiris, Isis used her magic and power to bring her husband back to life. The realms of life and death are often associated with both Isis and her faithful sister Nephthys, who are depicted together on coffins and funerary texts. They are usually shown in their human form, with the addition of the wings that they used to shelter and protect Osiris.

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Maponus (Celtic)

Maponus is associated with hot springs and sacred wells. David Williams / Getty Images

Maponus was a Gaulish deity who found his way into Britain at some point. He was associated with the waters of a healing spring, and eventually was absorbed into the Roman worship of Apollo, as Apollo Maponus. In addition to healing, he is associated with youthful beauty, poetry, and song.

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Panacaea (Greek)

Panacaea's magic potion was said to cure all the ailments of the world. Yagi Studio / Getty Images

Daughter of Asclepius and sister of Hygieia, Panacea was a goddess of healing by way of curative medicine. Her name gives us the word panacea, which refers to a cure-all for disease. She was said to carry a magic potion, which she used to heal people with any illness at all.

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Sirona (Celtic)

The goddess Sirona was often honored near hidden hot springs. picturegarden / Getty Images

In eastern Gaul, Sirona was honored as a deity of healing springs and waters. Her likeness appears in carvings near sulfur springs in what is now Germany. Like the Greek goddess Hygieia, she is often shown with a serpent

wrapped around her arms. Sirona’s temples were often constructed on or near thermal springs and healing wells.

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Vejovis (Roman)

'Pestilence', one of the Seven Plagues of Egypt, 1866. Artist: Gustave Doré. Print Collector/Getty Images / Getty Images

This Roman god is similar to the Greek Asclepius, and a temple was erected to his healing abilities on the Capitoline Hill. While little is known about him, some scholars believe Vejovis was a guardian of slaves and fighters, and sacrifices were made in his honor to prevent plague and pestilence. There is some question as to whether those sacrifices were goats or human.

The Greek Goddess Hecate

Hecate (sometimes spelled Hekate) was originally a Thracian, and pre-Olympian Greek goddess, and ruled over the realms of earth and fertility rituals. As a goddess of childbirth, she was often invoked for rites of puberty, and in some cases watched over maidens who were beginning to menstruate. Eventually, Hecate evolved to become a goddess of magic and sorcery. She was venerated as a mother goddess, and during the Ptolemaic period in Alexandria was elevated to her position as goddess of ghosts and the spirit world.

Hecate in Classical Mythology

Much like the Celtic hearth goddess Brighid, Hecate is a guardian of crossroads, and often symbolized by a spinning wheel. In addition to her connection to Brighid, she is associated with Diana Lucifera, who is the Roman Diana in her aspect as light-bearer. Hecate is often portrayed wearing the keys to the spirit world at her belt, accompanied by a three-headed hound, and surrounded by lit torches.

Guil Jones of Encyclopedia Mythica says,

"Hecate is the Greek goddess of the crossroads. She is most often depicted as having three heads; one of a dog, one of a snake and one of a horse. She is usually seen with two ghost hounds that were said to serve her. Hecate is most often mispercepted as the goddess of witchcraft or evil, but she did some very good things in her time... [she] is said to haunt a three-way crossroad, each of her heads facing in a certain direction. She is said to appear when the ebony moon shines."

The epic poet Hesiod tells us Hecate was the only child of Asteria, a star goddess who was the aunt of Apollo and Artemis. The event of Hecate's birth was tied to the reappearance of Phoebe, a lunar goddess, who appeared during the darkest phase of the moon.

She is sometimes seen as a protector of those who might be vulnerable, such as warriors and hunters, herdsmen and shepherds, and children. However, she's not protective in a nurturing or motherly way; instead, she is a goddess who will exact vengeance upon those who cause harm to people she protects. Sacrifices were made in Hecate's honor, during the classical Greek period, and ranged from cakes and eggs to dog meat. Hecate might be invoked by her followers for baneful magic; her name appears on several surviving curse tablets.

She could also be called upon for divine retribution against anyone who deserved punishment for his or her misdeeds.

Hesiod describes Hecate in her role as one of the Titans who allied herself with Zeus, and says in Theogony,

"Hekate whom Zeus the son of Kronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods . . . For as many as were born of Gaia and Ouranos amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Kronos [Zeus] did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea. Also, because she is an only child, the goddess receives not less honor, but much more still, for Zeus honors her."

Honoring Hecate Today

Today, many contemporary Pagans and Wiccans honor Hecate in her guise as a Dark Goddess, although it would be incorrect to refer to her as an aspect of the Crone, because of her connection to childbirth and maidenhood. It's more likely that her role as "dark goddess" comes from her connection to the spirit world, ghosts, the dark moon, and magic. She is known as a goddess who is not to be invoked lightly, or by those who are calling upon her frivolously. She is honored on November 30, the night of Hecate Trivia, the night of the crossroads.

To honor Hecate in your own magical practice, Hekatatia at Neokoroi.org recommends:

Adopt a dog, or volunteer at a shelter, since dogs are sacred to Hecate.

Take care of a deserted and neglected place that has been abandoned by everyone else.

Walk along a dark road at night, offering prayers or hymns to Hecate, to see if she will make her presence known.

Gods of the Ancient Greeks

The ancient Greeks honored a wide variety of gods, and many are still worshiped today by Hellenic Pagans. For the Greeks, much like many other ancient cultures, the deities were a part of daily life, not merely something to be chatted with in times of need. Here are some of the best-known gods and goddesses of the Greek pantheon.

Aphrodite, Goddess of Love

Aphrodite was a goddess of love and romance. She was honored by the ancient Greeks, and is still celebrated by many modern Pagans. According to legend, she was born fully formed from the white sea form that arose when the god Uranus was castrated. She came ashore on the island of Cyprus, and later was married off by Zeus to Hephaistos, the deformed craftsman of Olympus. A festival was held regularly to honor Aphrodite, appropriately called the Aphrodisiac.

Ares, God of War

Ares was a Greek god of war, and son of Zeus by his wife Hera. He was known not only for his own exploits in battle, but also for getting involved in disputes between others. Furthermore, he often served as an agent of justice.

Artemis, the Huntress

Artemis was a Greek goddess of the hunt, and like her twin brother Apollo possessed a wide variety of attributes. Some Pagans still honor her today because of her connection to times of female transition. Artemis was the Greek goddess of both hunting and childbirth. She protected women in labor, but also brought them death and sickness. Numerous cults dedicated to Artemis sprouted up around the Greek world, most of which were connected to women's mysteries, such as childbirth, puberty, and motherhood.

Athena, the Warrior Goddess

As a goddess of war, Athena often shows up in Greek legend to assist various heroes -- Heracles, Odysseus and Jason all got a helping hand from Athena. In classical myth, Athena never took any lovers, and was often revered as Athena the Virgin, or Athena Parthenos. Although technically, Athena is a warrior goddess, she is not the same sort of war god that Ares is. While Ares goes to war with frenzy and chaos, Athena is the goddess who helps warriors make wise choices that will eventually lead to victory.

Demeter, Dark Mother of the Harvest

Perhaps the best known of all the harvest mythologies is the story of Demeter and Persephone. Demeter was a goddess of grain and of the harvest in ancient Greece. Her daughter, Persephone, caught the eye of Hades, god of the underworld.By the time she finally recovered her daughter, Persephone had eaten six pomegranate seeds, and so was doomed to spend six months of the year in the underworld.

Eros, God of Passion and Lust

Ever wonder where the word "erotic" comes from? Well, it has a lot to do with Eros, the Greek god of and lust. Often described as a son of Aphrodite by her lover Ares, the god of war, Eros was a Greek god of lust and primal sexual desire. In fact, the word erotic comes from his name. He is personified in all kinds of love and lust and was worshipped at the center of a fertility cult that honored both Eros and Aphrodite together.

Gaia, the Earth Mother

Gaia was known as the life force from which all other beings sprang, including the earth, the sea and the mountains. A prominent figure in Greek mythology, Gaia is also honored by many Wiccans and Pagans today. Gaia herself caused life to spring forth from the earth, and is also the name given to the magical energy that makes certain locations sacred.

Hades, Ruler of the Underworld

Hades was the Greek god of the underworld. Because he’s unable to get out much, and doesn’t get to spend a lot of time with those who are still living, Hades focuses on increasing the underworld’s population levels whenever he can. Let's look at some of his legends and mythology, and see why this ancient god is still important today.

Hecate, Goddess of Magic and Sorcery

Hecate has a long history as a goddess, from her days in pre-Olympian times to the present. As a goddess of childbirth, she was often invoked for rites of puberty, and in some cases watched over maidens who were beginning to menstruate. Eventually, Hecate evolved to become a goddess of magic and sorcery. She was venerated as a mother goddess, and during the Ptolemaic period in Alexandria was elevated to her position as goddess of ghosts and the spirit world.

Hera, Goddess of Marriage

Hera is known as the first of Greek goddesses. As wife of Zeus, she's the leading lady of all the Olympians. Despite her husband's philandering ways -- or perhaps because of them -- she is the guardian of marriage and the sanctity of the home. She was known to fly into jealous tirades, and wasn’t above using her husband's illegitimate offspring as weapons against their own mothers. Hera also played a crucial role in the story of the Trojan War.

Hestia, Guardian of Hearth and Home

Many cultures have a goddess of hearth and domesticity, and the Greeks were no exception. Hestia was the deity who watched over the home fires, and offered sanctuary and protection to strangers. She was honored with the first offering at any sacrifice made in the home. On a public level, Hestia's flame was never allowed to burn out. The local town hall served as a shrine for her -- and any time a new settlement was formed, settlers would take a flame from their old village to the new one.

Nemesis, Goddess of Retribution

Nemesis was a Greek goddess of revenge and retribution. In particular, she was invoked against those whose hubris and arrogance got the better of them, and served as a force of divine reckoning. Originally, she was a deity who simply doled out what people had coming to them, whether good or bad.

Pan, the Goat-Legged Fertility God

In Greek legend and mythology, Pan is known as a rustic and wild god of the forest. He is associated with the animals that live in the woods, as well as with the sheep and goats in the fields.

Priapus, God of Lust and Fertility

Priapus is considered a god of protection. According to legend, before his birth, Hera cursed Priapus with impotence as payback for Aphrodite's involvement in the whole Helen of Troy fiasco. Doomed to spend his life ugly and unloved, Priapus was tossed down to earth when the other gods refused to let him live on Mount Olympus. He was seen as a protector deity in rural areas. In fact, statues of Priapus were often adorned with warnings, threatening trespassers, male and female alike, with acts of sexual violence as punishment.

Zeus, Ruler of Olympus

Zeus is the ruler of all the gods in the Greek pantheon, as well as the distributor of justice and law. He was honored every four years with a great celebration at Mt. Olympus. Although he is married to Here, Zeus is well known for his philandering ways. Today, many Hellenic Pagans still honor him as ruler of Olympus.

Working With the Gods and Goddesses

There are literally thousands of different deities out there in the Universe, and which ones you choose to honor will often depend significantly upon what pantheon your spiritual path follows. However, many modern Pagans and Wiccans describe themselves as eclectic, which means they may honor a god of one tradition beside a goddess of another. In some cases, we may choose to ask a deity for assistance in a magical working or in problem solving. Regardless, at some point, you're going to have to sit and sort them all out.

If you don't have a specific, written tradition, then how do you know which gods to call upon?

A good way to look at it is to figure out which deity of your pantheon would be interested in your purpose. In other words, what gods might take the time to look into your situation? This is where the concept of appropriate worship comes in handy -- if you can't take the time to get to know the deities of your path, then you probably shouldn't be asking them for favors. So first, figure out your goal. Are you doing a working regarding home and domesticity? Then don't call upon some masculine power deity.

What if you're celebrating the end of the harvest season, and the dying of the earth? Then you shouldn't be offering milk and flowers to a spring goddess.

Consider your purpose carefully, before you make offerings or prayers to a particular god or goddess.

Although this is certainly not a comprehensive list of all the gods and their domains, it may help you a bit to get an idea of who is out there, and what sorts of things they may be able to help you with:

Artisanship

For assistance relating to skills, crafts, or handiwork, call upon the Celtic smith god, Lugh, who wasn't just a talented blacksmith; Lugh is known as a god of many skills. Many other pantheons have forge and smithing gods as well, including the Greek Hephaestus, Roman Vulcan, and Slavic Svarog. Not all craftsmanship involves an anvil though; goddesses like Brighid, Hestia, and Vesta are associated with domestic creativity.

Chaos

When it comes to matters of discord and upsetting the balance of things, some people choose to to check in with Loki, the Norse prankster god. However, it's generally recommended that you don't do this unless you're a devotee of Loki in the first place - you may end up getting more than you bargained for. Other trickster gods include Anansi from Ashanti mythology, the Afro-Cuban Changó, Native American Coyote tales, and the Greek Eris.

Destruction

If you're doing a working related to destruction, the Celtic war goddess the Morrighan may assist you, but don't trifle with her lightly. A safer bet might be working with Demeter, the Dark Mother of the harvest season. Shiva is known as a destroyer in Hindu spirituality, as is Kali. The Egyptian Sekhmet, in her role as a warrior goddess, is also associated with destruction.

Fall Harvest

When you celebrate the fall harvest, you may want to take time to honor Herne, the god of the wild hunt, or Osiris, who is often connected with grain and the harvest. Demeter and her daughter, Persephone, are typically connected with the waning part of the year. Pomona is associated with fruit orchards and the bounty of trees in fall. There are also a number of other harvest gods and gods of the vine who may be interested in what you're doing.

Feminine Energy, Motherhood, and Fertility

For workings related to the moon, lunar energy, or the sacred feminine, consider invoking Artemis or Venus. Isis is a mother goddess on a grand scale, and Juno watches over women in labor.

When it comes to fertility, there are plenty of deities out there to ask for assistance. Consider Cernunnos, the wild stag of the forest, or Freya, a goddess of sexual power and energy. If you follow a Roman-based path, try honoring Bona Dea. There are a number of other fertility gods out there as well, each with their own specific domain.

Marriage, Love, and Lust

Brighid is a protector of hearth and home, and Juno and Vesta are both patronesses of marriage. Frigga was the wife of the all-powerful Odin, and was considered a goddess of fertility and marriage within the Norse pantheon. As the wife of the Sun God, Ra, Hathor is known in Egyptian legend as the patroness of wives. Aphrodite has long been associated with love and beauty, and so has her counterpart, Venus. Likewise, Eros and Cupid are considered representative of masculine lust. Priapus is a god of raw sexuality, including sexual violence.

Magic

Isis, the mother goddess of Egypt, is often called upon for magical workings, as is Hecate, a goddess of sorcery.

Masculine Energy

Cernunnos is a strong symbol of masculine energy and power, as is Herne, the god of the hunt. Odin and Thor, both Norse gods, are known as powerful, masculine gods.

Prophecy and Divination

Brighid is known as a goddess of prophecy, and so is Cerridwen, with her cauldron of knowledge. Janus, the two-faced god, sees both the past and future.

The Underworld

Because of his harvest associations, Osiris is often connected with the underworld. Anubis is the one who decides whether or not one the deceased is worthy of entering the realm of the dead. For the ancient Greeks, Hades didn’t get to spend a lot of time with those who are still living, and focused on increasing the underworld’s population levels whenever he could. Although he is the ruler of the dead, it’s important to distinguish that Hades is not the god of death – that title actually belongs to the god Thanatos.

The Norse Hel is often depicted with her bones on the outside of her body rather than the inside. She is typically portrayed in black and white, as well, showing that she represents both sides of all spectrums.

War and Conflict

The Morrighan is not only a goddess of war, but also of sovereignty and loyalty. Athena protects warriors and imparts them with wisdom. Freya and Thor guide fighters in battle.

Wisdom

Thoth was the Egyptian god of wisdom, and Athena and Odin may also be called upon, depending on your purpose.

Seasonal

There are a number of deities associated with the various times of the Wheel of the Year, including the Winter Solstice, Late winter, the Spring Equinox, and the Summer solstice.

Gods and Goddesses of Death and the Underworld

Death is rarely so apparent than it as at Samhain. The skies have gone gray, the earth is brittle and cold, and the fields have been picked of the last crops. Winter looms on the horizon, and as the Wheel of the Year turns once more, the boundary between our world and the spirit world becomes fragile and thin. In cultures all over the world, the spirit of Death has been honored at this time of the year. Here are just a few of the deities who represent death and the dying of the earth.

Anubis (Egyptian)

This god with the head of a jackal is associated with mummification and death in ancient Egypt. Anubis is the one who decides whether or not one the deceased is worthy of entering the realm of the dead. Anubis is typically portrayed as half human, and half jackal or dog. The jackal has connections to funerals in Egypt; bodies which were not buried properly might be dug up and eaten by hungry, scavenging jackals. Anubis' skin is almost always black in images, because of its association with the colors of rot and decay.

Embalmed bodies tend to turn black as well, so the color is very appropriate for a funeral god.

Demeter (Greek)

Through her daughter, Persephone, Demeter is linked strongly to the changing of the seasons and is often connected to the image of the Dark Mother and the dying of the fields. When Persephone was abducted by Hades, Demeter's grief caused the earth to die for six months, until her daughter's return.

Freya (Norse)

Although Freya is typically associated with fertility and abundance, she is also known as a goddess of war and battle. Half of the men who died in battle joined Freya in her hall, Folkvangr, and the other half joined Odin in Valhalla. Venerated by women, heroes and rulers alike, Freyja could be called upon for assistance in childbirth and conception, to aid with marital problems, or to bestow fruitfulness upon the land and sea.

Hades (Greek)

While Zeus became king of Olympus, and their brother Poseidon won domain over the sea, Hades got stuck with the land of the underworld. Because he’s unable to get out much, and doesn’t get to spend a lot of time with those who are still living, Hades focuses on increasing the underworld’s population levels whenever he can. Although he is the ruler of the dead, it’s important to distinguish that Hades is not the god of death — that title actually belongs to the god Thanatos.

Hecate (Greek)

Although Hecate was originally considered a goddess of fertility and childbirth, over time she has come to be associated with the moon, cronehood, and the underworld. Sometimes referred to as the Goddess of the Witches, Hecate is also connected to ghosts and the spirit world. In some traditions of modern Paganism, she is believed to be the gatekeeper between graveyards and the mortal world.

Hel (Norse)

This goddess is the ruler of the underworld in Norse mythology. Her hall is called Éljúðnir, and is where mortals go who do not die in battle, but of natural causes or sickness. Hel is often depicted with her bones on the outside of her body rather than the inside. She is typically portrayed in black and white, as well, showing that she represents both sides of all spectrums. She is a daughter of Loki, the trickster, and Angrboda. It is believed that her name is the source of the English word "hell," because of her connection to the underworld.

Meng Po (Chinese)

This goddess appears as an old woman, and it is her job to make sure that souls about to be reincarnated do not recall their previous time on earth. She brews a special herbal tea of forgetfulness, which is given to each soul before they return to the mortal realm.

Morrighan (Celtic)

This warrior goddess is associated with death in a way much like the Norse goddess Freya. The Morrighan is known as the washer at the ford, and it is she who determines which warriors walk off the battlefield, and which ones are carried away on their shields. She is represented in many legends by a trio of ravens, often seen as a symbol of death. In later Irish folklore, her role would be delegated to the bain sidhe, or banshee, who foresaw the death of members of a specific family or clan.

Osiris (Egyptian)

In Egyptian mythology, Osiris is murdered by his brother Set before being resurrected by the magic of his lover, Isis. The death and dismemberment of Osiris is often associated with the threshing of the grain during the harvest season. Artwork and statuary honoring Osiris typically portrays him wearing the pharaonic crown, known as the atef, and holding the crook and flail, which are the tools of a shepherd. These instruments often appear in the sarcophagi and funerary artwork depicting dead pharaohs, and the kings of Egypt claimed Osiris as part of their ancestry; it was their divine right to rule, as descendants of the god-kings.

Whiro (Maori)

This underworld god inspires people to do evil things. He typically appears as a lizard, and is the god of the dead. According to Maori Religion and Mythology by Esldon Best,

"Whiro was the origin of all disease, of all afflictions of mankind, and that he acts through the Maiki clan, who personify all such afflictions. All diseases were held to be caused by these demons–these malignant beings who dwell within Tai-whetuki, the House of Death, situated in nether gloom."

Yama (Hindu)

In the Hindu Vedic tradition, Yama was the first mortal to die and make his way to the next world, and so he was appointed king of the dead. He is also a lord of justice, and sometimes appears in an incarnation as Dharma.

Deities of Ancient Egypt

The gods and goddesses of ancient Egypt were a complex group of beings and ideas. As the culture evolved, so did many of the deities and what they represented. Here are some of the best-known gods and goddesses of ancient Egypt.

Anubis, God of Funerals and Embalming

Anubis guided the souls of the dead through the underworld. De Agostini / W. Buss / Getty Images

Anubis was the jackal-headed Egyptian god of death and embalming, and is said to be the son of Osiris by Nepthys, although in some legends his father is Set. It is the job of Anubis to weigh the souls of the dead, and determine whether they were worthy of admittance to the underworld. As part of his duties, he is the patron of lost souls and orphans. Find out why Anubis was important to the ancient Egyptians.

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Bast, the Cat Goddess

Bronze figurines of goddess Bastet, as a cat or a cat-headed woman. De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images

In ancient Egypt, cats were often worshipped as deities, Bast was one of the most highly honored feline gods. Also called Bastet, she was a goddess of sex and fertility. Originally, she was portrayed as a lioness, but was sometimes portrayed with kittens beside her, as an homage to her role as a goddess of fertility.

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Geb, God of Earth

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In the ancient Egyptian religion, Geb is known as the god of the earth and is the first king of Egypt. He is often portrayed lying beneath the sky goddess, Nut. In his role as a god of earth, he is a fertility deity. Plants grow within his body, the dead are imprisoned inside him, and earthquakes are his laughter. He is more than a god of the surface of the earth – in fact, he is a god of everything contained within the earth.

According to Professor Geller at Mythology.net, Geb was "tasked with guiding the deceased to the afterlife and providing provisions – meat and drink – to traveling souls. Geb’s name was often invoked to heal sick people, especially those stricken with illnesses created by natural elements, such as scorpion stings and colds."

Hathor, Patron of Women

The Egyptians honored Hathor, wife of Ra. Wolfgang Kaehler / age fotostock / Getty Images

In Egyptian religion, Hathor was a predynastic goddess who embodied femininity, love and the joy of motherhood. In addition to being a symbol of fertility, she was known as a goddess of the underworld, in that she welcomed the newly departed to the West.

Artist and author Thalia Took says Hathor "protects women and is present whenever they beautify themselves. She blesses women with fertility, and many of the ritual objects associated with Her – such as the sistrum and menat-necklace – also have an erotic significance, and in fact the Greeks identified Her with their Aphrodite."

Isis, Mother Goddess

Isis is often portrayed with her wings spread out. A. Dagli Orti / De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images

Originally a funerary goddess, Isis was the lover of Osiris. After his death, she used her magic to resurrect him. Isis is honored for her role as the mother of Horus, one of Egypt's most powerful gods. She was also the divine mother of every pharoah of Egypt, and ultimately of Egypt itself.

Ma'at, Goddess of Truth and Balance

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Maat is the Egyptian goddess of truth and justice. She is married to Thoth, and is the daughter of Ra, the sun god. In addition to truth, she embodies harmony, balance and divine order. In Egyptian legends, it is Maat who steps in after the universe is created, and brings harmony amidst the chaos and disorder.

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Osiris, King of Egyptian Gods

Osiris on his throne, as shown in the Book of the Dead, funerary papyrus. Image by W. Buss/De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images

Osiris was the son of earth and sky, and beloved of Isis. He is known as the god who taught mankind the secrets of civilization. Today, he is honored by some Pagans as a god of the underworld and of the harvest.

In The Golden Bough, Sir James Frazer says,

"[His] festival appears to have been essentially a festival of sowing, which properly fell at the time when the husbandman actually committed the seed to the earth. On that occasion an effigy of the corn-god, moulded of earth and corn, was buried with funeral rites in the ground in order that, dying there, he might come to life again with the new crops."

Ra, the Sun God

Ra played a crucial role in Egyptian mythology. Image from Print Collector/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Ra was the ruler of the heavens. He was the god of the sun, the bringer of light, and patron to the pharaohs. According to legend, the sun travels the skies as Ra drives his chariot through the heavens. Although he originally was associated only with the midday sun, as time went by, Ra became connected to the sun's presence all day long.

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Taweret, Guardian of Fertility

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Taweret was an Egyptian goddess of childbirth and fertility - but for a while, she was considered a demon. Associated with the hippopotomus, Taweret is a goddess who watches over and protects women in labor and their new babies.

Thoth, God of Magic and Wisdom

Thoth the scribe is associated with the moon's mysteries. Cheryl Forbes / Lonely Planet / Getty Images

Thoth was an Egyptian god who spoke as the tongue of Ra. Find out what's special about this ibis-headed deity of ancient Egypt, and how he factors in to the story o

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Deities of the Fields

When Lammastide rolls around, the fields are full and fertile. Crops are abundant, and the late summer harvest is ripe for the picking. This is the time when the first grains are threshed, apples are plump in the trees, and gardens are overflowing with summer bounty. In nearly every ancient culture, this was a time of celebration of the agricultural significance of the season. Because of this, it was also a time when many gods and goddesses were honored. These are some of the many deities who are connected with this earliest harvest holiday.

Adonis (Assyrian)

Adonis is a complicated god who touched many cultures. Although he's often portrayed as Greek, his origins are in early Assyrian religion. Adonis was a god of the dying summer vegetation. In many stories, he dies and is later reborn, much like Attis and Tammuz.

Attis (Phrygean)

This lover of Cybele went mad and castrated himself, but still managed to get turned into a pine tree at the moment of his death. In some stories, Attis was in love with a Naiad, and jealous Cybele killed a tree (and subsequently the Naiad who dwelled within it), causing Attis to castrate himself in despair. Regardless, his stories often deal with the theme of rebirth and regeneration.

Ceres (Roman)

Ever wonder why crunched-up grain is called cereal? It's named for Ceres, the Roman goddess of the harvest and grain. Not only that, she was the one who taught lowly mankind how to preserve and prepare corn and grain once it was ready for threshing. In many areas, she was a mother-type goddess who was responsible for agricultural fertility.

Dagon (Semitic)

Worshipped by an early Semitic tribe called the Amorites, Dagon was a god of fertility and agriculture. He's also mentioned as a father-deity type in early Sumerian texts and sometimes appears as a fish god. Dagon is credited with giving the Amorites the knowledge to build the plough.

Demeter (Greek)

The Greek equivalent of Ceres, Demeter is often linked to the changing of the seasons. She is often connected to the image of the Dark Mother in late fall and early winter. When her daughter Persephone was abducted by Hades, Demeter's grief caused the earth to die for six months, until Persephone's return.

Lugh (Celtic)

Lugh was known as a god of both skill and the distribution of talent. He is sometimes associated with midsummer because of his role as a harvest god, and during the summer solstice the crops are flourishing, waiting to be plucked from the ground at Lughnasadh.

Mercury (Roman)

Fleet of foot, Mercury was a messenger of the gods. In particular, he was a god of commerce and is associated with the grain trade. In late summer and early fall, he ran from place to place to let everyone know it was time to bring in the harvest. In Gaul, he was considered a god not only of agricultural abundance but also of commercial success.

Osiris (Egyptian)

An androgynous grain deity named Neper became popular in Egypt during times of starvation. He later was seen as an aspect of Osiris, and part of the cycle of life, death and rebirth. Osiris himself is, like Isis, associated with the harvest season. According to Donald MacKenzie in Egyptian Myths and Legend:

Osiris taught men to break up the land which had been under flood) to sow the seed, and, in due season, to reap the harvest. He instructed them also how to grind corn and knead flour and meal so that they might have food in plenty. By the wise ruler was the vine trained upon poles, and he cultivated fruit trees and caused the fruit to be gathered. A father was he unto his people, and he taught them to worship the gods, to erect temples, and to live holy lives. The hand of man was no longer lifted against his brother. There was prosperity in the land of Egypt in the days of Osiris the Good.

Parvati (Hindu)

Parvati was a consort of the god Shiva, and although she does not appear in Vedic literature, she is celebrated today as a goddess of the harvest and protector of women in the annual Gauri Festival.

Pomona (Roman)

This apple goddess is the keeper of orchards and fruit trees. Unlike many other agricultural deities, Pomona is not associated with the harvest itself, but with the flourishing of fruit trees. She is usually portrayed bearing a cornucopia or a tray of blossoming fruit. Despite her being a rather obscure deity, Pomona's likeness appears many times in classical art, including paintings by Rubens and Rembrandt, and a number of sculptures.

Tammuz (Sumerian)

This Sumerian god of vegetation and crops is often associated with the cycle of life, death, and rebirth. Donald A. Mackenzie writes in Myths of Babylonia and Assyria: With Historical Narrative & Comparative Notes that:

Tammuz of the Sumerian hymns... is the Adonis-like god who lived on earth for a part of the year as the shepherd and agriculturist so dearly beloved by the goddess Ishtar. Then he died so that he might depart to the realm of Eresh-ki-gal (Persephone), queen of Hades.

The Different Types of Pagan Deities

Many Pagan deities are associated with various aspects of the human experience – love, death, marriage, fertility, and so forth. Still others are connected to different phases of the agricultural cycle, the moon, and the sun. Here is an index of the various gods and goddesses that we discuss here, with links to more detailed information contained within.

Deities of Love and Marriage

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Throughout history, nearly all cultures have had gods and goddesses associated with love and marriage. Although a few are male -- Eros and Cupid come to mind -- most are female because the institution of marriage has long been viewed as the domain of women. If you're doing a working relating to love magic, or if you wish to honor a particular deity as part of a marriage ceremony, these are some of the gods and goddesses associated with the very human emotion of love.

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Deities of Healing

Does your tradition honor a god or goddess of healing magic?. Image by Angel Abdelazim /EyeEm/Getty Images

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Lunar Deities

Drawing down the moon calls upon the divine. Image by Gavin Harrison/Photographer's Choice/Getty Images

For thousands of years, people have looked up at the moon and wondered about its divine significance. It should come as no surprise that many cultures throughout time have had lunar deities - that is, gods or goddesses associated with the power and energy of the moon. If you're doing a moon-related ritual, in some traditions of Wicca and Paganism you may choose to call upon one of these deities for assistance. Let's look at some of the better known lunar deities.

Deities of Death and the Underworld

In many cultures, gods of death and dying are honored at Samhain. Image by Darren Mower/Vetta/Getty Images

Death is rarely so apparent than it as at Samhain. The skies have gone gray, the earth is brittle and cold, and the fields have been picked clean of the last crops. Winter looms on the horizon, and as the Wheel of the Year turns once more, the boundary between our world and the spirit world becomes fragile and thin. In cultures all over the world, the spirit of Death has been honored at this time of the year. Here are just a few of the deities who represent death and the dying of the earth.

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Deities of the Winter Solstice

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While it may be mostly Pagans and Wiccans who celebrate the Yule holiday, nearly all cultures and faiths have some sort of winter solstice celebration or festival. Because of the theme of endless birth, life, death, and rebirth, the time of the solstice is often associated with deity and other legendary figures. No matter which path you follow, chances are good that one of your gods or goddesses has a winter solstice connection.

Deities of Imbolc

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Although traditionally Imbolc is associated with Brighid, the Irish goddess of hearth and home, there are a number of other deities who are represented at this time of year. Thanks to Valentine's Day, many gods and goddesses of love and fertility are honored at this time.

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Deities of Spring

Celebrate the goddesses of spring and rebirth. Image by IB/Vetta/Getty Images

Spring is a time of great celebration in many cultures. It's the time of year when the planting begins, people begin to once more enjoy the fresh air, and we can reconnect with the earth again after the long, cold winter. A number of different gods and goddesses from different pantheons ar

themes of spring and Ostara.

Fertility Deities

The green man is an iconic figure in spring mythology. Image by Matt Cardy/Getty Images News

Beltane is a time of great fertility -- for the earth itself, for animals, and of course for people as well. This season has been celebrated by cultures going back thousands of years, in a variety of ways, but nearly all shared the fertility aspect. Typically, this is a Sabbat to celebrate gods of the hunt or of the forest, and goddesses of passion and motherhood, as well as agricultural deities. Here is a list of gods and goddesses that can be honored as part of your tradition's Beltane rituals.

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Deities of the Summer Solstice

Ra played a crucial role in Egyptian mythology. Image from Print Collector/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

The summer solstice has long been a time when cultures celebrated the lengthening year. It is on this day, sometimes called Litha, that there is more daylight than any other time; a direct counterpoint to the darkness of Yule. No matter where you live, or what you call it, chances are you can connect to a culture that honored a sun deity around this time of year. Here are just a few of the gods and goddesses from around the world that are connected with the summer solstice.

Deities of the Fields

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Deities of the Hunt

Artemis was a goddess of the hunt in Greek mythology. Image by Vladimir Pcholkin/The Image Bank/Getty Images

In many ancient Pagan civilizations, gods and goddesses associated with the hunt were held in a position of high regard. In some of today’s Pagan belief systems, hunting is considered off-limits, but for many others, deities of the hunt are still honored by modern Pagans. While this is certainly not meant to be an all-inclusive list, here are just a few of the gods and goddesses of the hunt that are honored by today’s Pagans.

Warrior Deities

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While some Pagans may choose to celebrate hearth gods or goddesses of love and beauty, there are many Pagan traditions that pay tribute to warrior deities. If you find yourself relating to a warrior god or goddess, here are some of the many deities you may want to explore a connection with. Bear in mind that this is not an all-inclusive list, and there are many more warrior deities out there to investigate, from a variety of world pantheons.

Gods of the Vine

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Grapes are everywhere in the fall, so it's no surprise that the Mabon season is a popular time to celebrate winemaking and deities connected to the growth of the vine. Whether you see him as Bacchus, Dionysus, the Green Man, or some other vegetative god, the god of the vine is a key archetype in harvest celebrations.

Mother Goddesses

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When Margaret Murray wrote her ground-breaking God of the Witches in 1931, scholars quickly dismissed her theory of a universal, pre-Christian cult of witches who worshiped a singular mother goddess. However, she wasn't completely off-base. Many early societies had a mother-like godform, and honored the sacred feminine with their ritual, art, and legends.

Deities by Pantheon

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Wondering about the gods of the Celts, Norse, Greeks or Romans? Here are some of the best-known gods and goddesses of modern Paganism, as well as some tips

The Goddess Bast

In ancient Egypt, cats were often worshiped as deities -- and anyone who lives with a cat knows they haven't forgotten that, either! In particular, Bast, also known as Bastet, was one of the most highly honored feline gods.

Origins and History

Bast was known as a goddess of warfare in Lower Egypt during the period in which Egypt was still divided. At the same time, cultures in Upper Egypt honored Sekhmet, a similar cat-headed goddess of battle. Today, Egyptologists typically refer to Bast as Bastet, because of variants in the spelling that came along later. The second letter T is a reflection of the pronunciation of the goddess’ name.

Scholars are divided on what the names Bast and Bastet actually meant to the ancient Egyptians, but there is a possibility that they are associated with protective ointments. The hieroglyph for “ointment jar” actually appears in the center of Bast’s name in Egyptian paintings.

In addition to being a war goddess, Bast was eventually honored as a goddess of sex and fertility. According to the Encyclopedia of World Mythology, she was originally portrayed as a lioness, but by the time of the Middle Kingdom, around 900 b.c.e., she had morphed into more of a domestic cat.

Appearance

Images of Bastet began appearing around 3,000 b.c.e., in which she was portrayed as a lioness, or as a woman’s body with a lioness’ head. When Upper and Lower Egypt unified, her importance as a war goddess dwindled a bit, with Sekhmet becoming the more prominent deity of battle and warfare.

By around 1,000 b.c.e., Bastet had changed somewhat, and had become associated with domestic cats, rather than the lioness. Eventually, her image was that of a cat, or as a cat-headed woman, and she took on the role of a protector of pregnant women or those who wished to conceive. Sometimes, she was depicted with kittens beside her, as homage to her role as a goddess of fertility. She is sometimes shown holding a sistrum, which was a sacred rattle used in Egyptian rituals. In other images, she holds a basket or box.

Mythology

Bast was also seen as a goddess who protected mothers and their newborn children. In Egyptian magical texts, a woman suffering from infertility might make an offering to Bast in hopes that this would help her conceive.

In later years, Bast became strongly connected with Mut, a mother goddess figure, and with the Greek Artemis. In early periods she was associated with the sun, and the solar god Ra, but later became representative of the moon.

Worship & Celebration

The cult of Bast originally sprouted up around the town of Bubastis, which takes its name from her. In her role as protector -- not only of households, but of all of Lower Egypt -- she guarded rural folk and nobility alike. She was often associated with the sun god, Ra, and in later times became a bit of a solar deity herself. When Greek culture moved into Egypt, Bast was portrayed as a moon goddess instead.

Her annual festival was a huge event, attended by as many as half a million worshipers. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, women attending the festival engaged in a lot of singing and dancing, sacrifices were made in Bast’s honor, and there was a lot of drinking going on. He wrote, “When the people are on their way to Bubastis, they go by river, a great number in every boat, men and women together. Some of the women make a noise with rattles, others play flutes all the way, while the rest of the women, and the men, sing and clap their hands.”

When Bast's temple at Per-Bast was excavated, the mummified remains of over a quarter of a million cats were discovered, according to the Encylopedia Mythica. During the heyday of ancient Egypt, cats were bedecked in gold jewelry and permitted to eat from their owners' plates. When a cat died, it was honored with an elaborate ceremony, mummification, and interment at Per-Bast.

Honoring Bast or Bastet Today

Today, many modern Pagans still pay tribute to Bast or Bastet. If you’d like to honor Bast in your rituals and celebrations, try some of these ideas:

Create an altar in Bast’s name, and decorate it with images of cats and lions, baskets, brightly colored crystals or gemstones, and sistrums or rattles.

Offer a prayer to Bast or Bastet, in the form of a song or chant. Since dancing was a way in which she was celebrated, add some dancing as you sing her praises.

If you’re trying to conceive a child, or if you’re pregnant and want her to watch over you, make offerings to Bast. Honey or other sweet foods such as chocolate are an appropriate choice, as is raw meat or milk, or even handcrafted cat statues or perfumed ointments.

Deities of Love and Marriage

Throughout history, nearly all cultures have had gods and goddesses associated with love and marriage. Although a few are male–Cupid in particular come to mind, thanks to Valentine's Day–most are female, because the institution of marriage has long been viewed as the domain of women. If you're doing a working relating to love, or if you wish to honor a particular deity as part of a marriage ceremony, these are some of the gods and goddesses associated with the very human emotion of love.

Aphrodite (Greek)

Aphrodite was the Greek goddess of love and sexuality, a job she took very seriously. She was married to Hephaistos, but also had a multitude of lovers–one of her favorites was the warrior god Ares. A festival was held regularly to honor Aphrodite, appropriately called the Aphrodisiac. At her temple in Corinth, revelers often paid tribute to Aphrodite by having rambunctious sex with her priestesses. The temple was later destroyed by the Romans, and not rebuilt, but fertility rites appear to have continued in the area. Like many Greek gods, Aphrodite spent a lot of time meddling in the lives of humans–particularly their love lives–and was instrumental in the cause of the Trojan War.

Cupid (Roman)

Eros, or Cupid, is a well known god of love. Image by Chris Schmidt/E+/Getty Images

In ancient Rome, Cupid was the incarnation of Eros, the god of lust and desire. Eventually, though, he evolved into the image we have today of a chubby cherub, flitting about zapping people with his arrows. In particular, he enjoyed matching people up with odd partners, and this eventually ended up being his own undoing, when he fell in love with Psyche. Cupid was the son of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. He typically is seen on Valentine's Day cards and decorations, and is invoked as a god of pure love and innocence–a far cry from his original form.

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Eros (Greek)

Eros is the Greek variant of Cupid. Daryl Benson/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Although not specifically a god of love, Eros is often invoked as a god of lust and passion. This son of Aphrodite was a Greek god of lust and primal sexual desire. In fact, the word erotic comes from his name. He is personified in all kinds of love and lust–heterosexual and homosexual–and was worshipped at the center of a fertility cult that honored both Eros and Aphrodite together. During the classical Roman period, Eros evolved into Cupid, and became portrayed as the chubby cherub that still remains as a popular image today. He is typically shown blindfolded–because, after all, love is blind–and carrying a bow, with which he shot arrows at his intended targets.

Frigga (Norse)

Norse women honored Frigga as a goddess of marriage. Anna Gorin/Moment/Getty Images

Frigga was the wife of the all-powerful Odin, and was considered a goddess of fertility and marriage within the Norse pantheon. Frigga is the only one besides Odin who is allowed to sit on his throne, Hlidskjalf, and she is known in some Norse tales as the Queen of Heaven. Today, many modern Norse Pagans honor Frigga as a goddess of both marriage and prophecy.

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Hathor (Egyptian)

The Egyptians honored Hathor, wife of Ra. Wolfgang Kaehler/age fotostock/Getty Images

As the wife of the Sun God, Ra, Hathor is known in Egyptian legend as the patroness of wives. In most classical depictions, she is portrayed either as a cow goddess, or with a cow nearby–it is her role as mother that is most often seen. However, in later periods, she was associated with fertility, love and passion.

Hera (Greek)

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Hera was the Greek goddess of marriage, and as the wife of Zeus, Hera was the queen of all wives! Although Hera fell in love with Zeus (her brother) immediately, he isn't often faithful to her, so Hera spends a lot of time fighting off her husband's numerous lovers. Hera is centered around the hearth and home, and focuses on family relationships. Like Aphrodite, Hera played a crucial role in the story of the Trojan War. When she was slighted by the Trojan prince Paris, she decided that to pay him back, she would do everything in her power to see Troy destroyed in the war.

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Juno (Roman)

Juno bathing or Juno attired by Graces, by Andrea Appiani (1754). DAGLI ORTI/De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images

In ancient Rome, Juno was the goddess who watched over women and marriage. Although Juno's festival, the Matronalia, was actually celebrated in March, the month of June was named for her. It's a month for weddings and handfastings, so she is often honored at Litha, the time of the summer solstice. During the Matronalia, women received gifts from their husbands and daughters, and gave their female slaves the day off work.

Parvati (Hindu)

Many Hindu brides honor Parvati on their wedding day. uniquely india/photosindia/Getty Images

Parvati was the consort of the Hindu god Shiva, and is known as a goddess of love and devotion. She is one of many forms of Shakti, the all-powerful female force in the universe. Her union with Shiva taught him to embrace pleasure, and so in addition to being a destroyer god, Shiva is also a patron of the arts

The Roman equivalent of Aphrodite, Venus was a goddess of love and beauty. Originally, she was associated with gardens and fruitfulness, but later took on all the aspects of Aphrodite from the Greek traditions. Similar to Aphrodite, Venus took a number of lovers, both mortal and divine. Venus is nearly always portrayed as young and lovely. The statue Aphrodite of Milos, better known as the Venus de Milo, depicts the goddess as classically beautiful, with womanly curves and a knowing smile.

Vesta (Roman)

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Although Vesta was actually a goddess of virginity, she was honored by Roman women along with Juno. Vesta's status as a virgin represented the purity and honor of Roman women at the time of their marriage, and so it was important to keep her in high regard. In addition to her role as virgin-in-chief, however, Vesta is also a guardian of the hearth and domesticity. Her eternal flame burned in many Roman villages. Her festival, the Vestalia, was celebrated each year in June.

Indian

The major Indian religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. All originated on the Indian subcontinent and spread to various other regions throughout history.

Hinduism

In-depth articles about the world's oldest religion, with particular focus on Hinduism's history, culture, beliefs, practices, festivals, holidays, and more.

History and Major Milestones

How Hinduism has evolved over the years, influenced by India's past and present.

The national anthem of India, "Jana Gana Mana," is sung on many occasions, but particularly on two national holidays—Independence Day (August 15) and Republic Day (January 26).

The song includes the lyrics and music of the first stanza of the Nobel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore's "Jana Gana Mana," written in praise of India. Below are the words of India's national anthem:

Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he

Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.

Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha

Dravida-Utkala-Banga

Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga

Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga.

Tava shubha name jage,

Tava shubha asisa mage,

Gahe tava jaya gatha,

Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he

Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.

Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,

Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!

This full version of the anthem is about 52 seconds long. There is also a shorter version, which includes only the first and last lines of the full version. The short version of India's national anthem is 20 seconds long:

Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he

Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.

Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,

Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!

Tagore translated "Jana Gana Mana" into English as follows:

Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people,

Dispenser of India's destiny.

Thy name rouses the hearts of Punjab, Sind,

Gujarat and Maratha,

Of the Dravida and Orissa and Bengal;

It echoes in the hills of the Vindhyas and Himalayas,

mingles in the music of Jamuna and Ganges and is

chanted by the waves of the Indian Sea.

They pray for thy blessings and sing thy praise.

The saving of all people waits in thy hand,

Thou dispenser of India's destiny.

Victory, victory, victory to thee.

By rule, whenever the anthem is sung or played live, the audience should stand at attention. It cannot be indiscriminately sung or played randomly. The full version should be played accompanied by mass singing on the unfurling of the national flag, on cultural occasions, at ceremonial functions, and on arrival of the president of India at any government or public function and also immediately before his departure from such functions.

The National Song of India

Equal in status with national anthem is the national song of India, called "Vande Mataram." Composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay, it inspired the people of the nation in their struggle for freedom from British Rule. This song was first sung at the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress and is as follows:

Vande Mataram!

Sujalam, suphalam, malayaja shitalam,

Shasyashyamalam, Mataram!

Vande Mataram!

Shubhrajyotsna pulakitayaminim,

Phullakusumita drumadala shobhinim,

Suhasinim sumadhura bhashinim,

Sukhadam varadam, Mataram!

Vande Mataram, Vande Mataram!

Hindu guru, patriot, and litteratteur Sri Aurobindo translated the song into English prose:

I bow to thee, Mother,

richly watered, richly fruited,

cool with the winds of the south,

dark with the crops of the harvests,

The Mother!

Her nights rejoicing in the glory of the moonlight,

her lands clothed beautifully with her trees in flowering bloom,

sweet of laughter, sweet of speech,

The Mother, giver of boons, giver of bliss.

Song's Role in Independence

"Vande Mataram" was first published in Bankimchandra's novel Ananda Math in 1882 and was set to music by Tagore, the composer of the national anthem. The first couple of words of the song became the slogan of India's nationalist movement. "Vande Mataram" was the war cry that inspired those working for India's freedom from British rule.

In September 2005, the centenary of "Vande Mataram" was celebrated at the Red Fort in Delhi. As part of celebrations, an exhibition of rare portraits of martyrs was opened in the Red Fort. Tributes were paid to Madame Bhikaiji Cama, who unfurled the flag of Indian freedom with "Vande Mataram" inscribed on it at the International Socialist Congress at Stuttgart in Germany in 1907.

Alexander the Great Invades India

An Indian History Story for Children

India is no new-discovered land. At a time when England was still unknown, still lost in the cold gray mists of the ocean, ships sailed from India's sunny shores, and caravans wound through the sandy deserts laden with silks and muslins, with gold and jewels and spices.

For through long ages India has been a place of trade. The splendors of King Solomon came from out the East. He must have traded with India when he built great ships and sent "his shipmen that had knowledge of the sea" to sail to the far land of Ophir, which perhaps may have been in Africa or equally perhaps the island of Ceylon. From there these ship-men fetched such "great plenty" of gold and precious stones, that "silver was nothing accounted of in the days of Solomon."

The court, too, of many an ancient heathen king and queen was made rich and beautiful by the treasures of the East. Yet little was known of the land of gold and spice, of gems and peacocks. For beside the merchants, who grew rich with their traffickings, few journeyed to India.

But at length, in 327 B.C., the great Greek conqueror Alexander found his way there. Having subdued Syria, Egypt, and Persia, he next marched to invade the unknown land of gold.

Alexander Arrives in India

The part of India which Alexander invaded is called the Punjab, or land of the five rivers. At that time it was ruled by a king called Porus. He was overlord of the Punjab, and under him were many other princes. Some of these princes were ready to rebel against Porus, and they welcomed Alexander gladly. But Porus gathered a great army and came marching against the Greek invader.

On one side of a wide river lay the Greeks, on the other side lay the Indians. It seemed impossible for either to cross. But in the darkness of a stormy night, Alexander and his men passed over, wading part of the way breast high.

A great battle was fought. For the first time, the Greeks met elephants in war. The huge beasts were very terrible to look upon. Their awful trumpetings made the Greek horses shiver and tremble. But Alexander's soldiers were far better drilled and far stronger than the Indians. His horsemen charged the elephants in flank, and they stung to madness by the Greek darts, turned to flee, trampling many of the soldiers of Porus to death in their fright. The Indian war-chariots stuck fast in the mud. Porus himself was wounded.

At length, he yielded to the conqueror.

But now that Porus was defeated Alexander was gracious to him, and treated him as one great king and warrior should treat another. Henceforth they became friends.

As Alexander marched through India he fought battles, built altars, and founded cities. One city he called Boukephala in honor of his favorite horse Bucephalus, who died and was buried there. Other cities he called Alexandria in honor of his own name.

Continuing the Journey

As they journeyed, Alexander and his soldiers saw many new and strange sights. They passed through boundless forests of mighty trees beneath whose branches roosted flocks of wild peacocks. They saw serpents, glittering with golden scales, glide swiftly through the underwood. They stared in wonder at fearful combats of beasts and told strange stories when they returned home, of dogs that were not afraid to fight with lions, and of ants that dug for gold.

At length, Alexander reached the city of Lahore and marched on to the banks of the river Sutlej beyond. He was eager to reach the holy river the Ganges and conquer the people there. But his men had grown weary of the hardships of the way, weary of fighting under the burning suns or torrent rains of India, and they begged him to go no further. So, greatly against his will, Alexander turned back.

The Greeks did not return as they had come. They sailed down the rivers Jhelum and Indus. And so little was known of India in those days, that they believed at first that they were upon the Nile and that they would return home by way of Egypt. But they soon discovered their mistake, and after long journeyings reached Macedonia again.

The Legacy of Alexanders Conquest

It was only the north of India through which Alexander had marched. He had not really conquered the people, although he left Greek garrisons and Greek rulers behind him, and when he died the people quickly revolted against the rule of Macedonia. So all trace of Alexander and his conquests soon disappeared from India. His altars have vanished and the names of the cities which he founded have been changed. But for long ages, the deeds of the great "Secunder," as they called him, lived in the memory of the Indians.

And it is since the time of Alexander that the people of the West have known something of the wonderful land in the East with which they had traded through many centuries.

Excerpted from "Our Empire Story" by H. E. Marshall

Vedic Women

Esteem of Women in Vedic India

"The home has, verily, its foundation in the wife"

- The Rig Veda

During the Vedic age, more than 3,000 years ago, women were assigned a high place in society. They shared an equal standing with their men folk and enjoyed a kind of liberty that actually had societal sanctions. The ancient Hindu philosophical concept of 'shakti', the feminine principle of energy, was also a product of this age. This took the form of worship of the female idols or goddesses.

Birth of the Goddess

The feminine forms of the Absolute and the popular Hindu goddesses are believed to have taken shape in the Vedic era. These female forms came to represent different feminine qualities and energies of the Brahman. Goddess Kali portrays the destructive energy, Durga the protective, Lakshmi the nourishing, and Saraswati the creative.

Here it's notable that Hinduism recognizes both the masculine and feminine attributes of the Divine, and that without honoring the feminine aspects, one cannot claim to know God in his entirety. So we also have many male-female divine-duos like Radha-Krishna, Sita-Rama, Uma-Mahesh, and Lakshmi-Narayan, where the female form is usually addressed first.

Education of the Girl Child

Vedic literature praises the birth of a scholarly daughter in these words: "A girl also should be brought up and educated with great effort and care." (Mahanirvana Tantra); and "All forms of knowledge are aspects of Thee, and all women throughout the world are Thy forms." (Devi Mahatmya)

Women, who so desired, could undergo the sacred thread ceremony or 'Upanayana' (a sacrament to pursue Vedic studies), which is only meant for males even to this day. The mention of female scholars and sages of the Vedic age like Vac, Ambhrni, Romasa, Gargi, Khona in the Vedic lore corroborates this view. These highly intelligent and greatly learned women, who chose the path of Vedic studies, were called 'brahmavadinis', and women who opted out of education for married life were called 'sadyovadhus'.

Co-education seems to have existed in this period and both the sexes got equal attention from the teacher. Moreover, ladies from the Kshatriya caste received martial arts courses and arms training.

Women & Marriage

Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the Vedic age, of which four were more prominent. The first was 'brahma', where the daughter was given as gift to a good man learned in the Vedas; the second was 'daiva' , where the daughter was given as a gift to the presiding priest of a Vedic sacrifice. 'Arsa' was the third kind where the groom had to pay to get the lady, and 'prajapatya', the fourth kind, where the father gave his daughter to a man who promised monogamy and faithfulness.

In the Vedic age there was both the custom of 'Kanyavivaha' where the marriage of a pre-puberty girl was arranged by her parents and 'praudhavivaha' where the girls were married off after attaining puberty. Then there was also the custom of 'Swayamvara' where girls, usually of royal families, had the freedom to choose her husband from among the eligible bachelors invited to her house for the occasion.

Wifehood in the Vedic Era

As in present, after marriage, the girl became a 'grihini' (wife) and was considered 'ardhangini' or one half of her husband's being. Both of them constituted the 'griha' or home, and she was considered its 'samrajni' (queen or mistress) and had an equal share in the performance of religious rites.

Divorce, Remarriage & Widowhood

Divorce and remarriage of women were allowed under very special conditions. If a woman lost her husband, she was not forced to undergo the merciless practices that cropped up in later years. She was not compelled to tonsure her head, nor was she forced to wear red sari and commit 'sahagamana' or dying on the funeral pyre of the dead husband. If they chose to, they could live a life of a 'sanyasin' or hermit, after the husband passed away.

Prostitution in the Vedic Age

Prostitutes were very much a part of the Vedic society. They were allowed to make a living, but their lives were regulated by a code of conduct. They came to be known as 'devadasis' - the girls who were married to God in a temple and expected to spend the rest of the life as his maid serving the men in the society.

Key Texts, Scriptures, and Epics

Many of the world's first scriptures, religious texts, and epic poems originated in India. Discover the Vedas, Upanishads, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Vedanta, and more.

What Are the Upanishads to Indian Philosophy?

The Upanishads form the core of Indian philosophy. They are an amazing collection of writings from original oral transmissions, which have been aptly described by Shri Aurobindo as "the supreme work of the Indian mind". It is here that we find all the fundamental teachings that are central to Hinduism — the concepts of 'karma' (action), 'samsara' (reincarnation), 'moksha' (nirvana), the 'atman' (soul), and the 'Brahman' (Absolute Almighty). They also set forth the prime Vedic doctrines of self-realization, yoga, and meditation.

The Upanishads are summits of thought on mankind and the universe, designed to push human ideas to their very limit and beyond. They give us both spiritual vision and philosophical argument, and it is a strictly personal effort that one can reach the truth.

Meaning of 'Upanishad'

The term 'Upanishad' literally means, "sitting down near" or "sitting close to", and implies listening closely to the mystic doctrines of a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has cognized the fundamental truths of the universe. It points to a period in time when groups of pupils sat near the teacher and learned from him the secret teachings in the quietude of forest 'ashrams' or hermitages. In another sense of the term, 'Upanishad' means 'Brahma-knowledge' by which ignorance is annihilated. Some other possible meanings of the compound word 'Upanishad' are "placing side by side" (equivalence or correlation), a "near approach" (to the Absolute Being), "secret wisdom" or even "sitting near the enlightened".

Time of Composition of the Upanishads

Historians and Indologists have put the date of composition of the Upanishads from around 800 - 400 B.C., though many of the verse versions may have been written much later. In fact, they were written over a very long period of time and do not represent a coherent body of information or one particular system of belief. However, there is a commonality of thought and approach.

The Main Books

Although there are more than 200 Upanishads, only thirteen have been identified out as presenting the core teachings. They are the Chandogya, Kena, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Katha, Mundaka, Taittriyaka, Brihadaranyaka, Svetasvatara, Isa, Prasna, Mandukya and the Maitri Upanishads. One of the oldest and longest of the Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka says:

"From the unreal lead me to the real!

From darkness lead me to light!

From death lead me to immortality!"

The crux of the Upanishads is that this can be achieved by meditating with the awareness that one's soul ('atman') is one with all things, and that 'one' is 'Brahman', which becomes the 'all'.

Who Wrote the Upanishads?

The authors of the Upanishads were many, but they were not solely from the priestly caste. They were poets prone to flashes of spiritual wisdom, and their aim was to guide a few chosen pupils to the point of liberation, which they themselves had attained. According to some scholars, the main figure in the Upanishads is Yajnavalkya, the great sage who propounded the doctrine of 'neti-neti', the view that "truth can be found only through the negation of all thoughts about it". Other important Upanishadic sages are Uddalaka Aruni, Shwetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada, Sanat Kumara.

Many earlier Vedic teachers like Manu, Brihaspati, Ayasya, and Narada are also found in the Upanishads.

The human being is the central mystery of the universe holding the key to all other mysteries. Indeed, human beings are our own greatest enigma. As the famous physicist, Niels Bohr once said, "We are both spectators and actors in the great drama of existence." Hence the importance of developing of what is known as the "science of human possibilities." It was such a science that India sought and found in the Upanishads in an attempt to unravel the mystery of human beings.

Science of the Self

Today, we see a growing urge in everyone to realize the 'true self'. We are keenly feeling the need to make our knowledge flower into wisdom. A strange yearning to know about the infinite and the eternal disturbs us. It is against this background of modern thought and aspirations that the contributions of the Upanishads to the human cultural legacy become significant.

The purpose of the Vedas was to ensure the true welfare of all beings, worldly as well as spiritually. Before such a synthesis could be achieved, there was a need to penetrate the inner worlds to its depth. This is what the Upanishads did with precision and gave us the science of the self, which helps man leave behind the body, the senses, the ego and all other non-self elements, which are perishable. The Upanishads tell us the great saga of this discovery — of the divine in the heart of man.

The Inside Story

Very early in the development of the Indian civilization, the man became aware of a strange new field of human experience — the within of nature as revealed in man, and in his consciousness and his ego. It gathered volume and power as years rolled on until in the Upanishads it became a deluge issuing in a systematic, objective and scientific pursuit of truth in the depth of experience. It conveys to us an impression of the tremendous fascination that this new field of inquiry held for the contemporary mind.

These Indian thinkers were not satisfied with their intellectual speculations. They discovered that the universe remained a mystery and the mystery only deepened with the advance of such knowledge, and one of the important components of that deepening mystery is the mystery of man himself. The Upanishads became aware of this truth, which modern science now emphasizes.

In the Upanishads, we get a glimpse into the workings of the minds of the great Indian thinkers who were unhampered by the tyranny of religious dogma, political authority, the pressure of public opinion, seeking truth with single-minded devotion, rare in the history of thought. As Max Muller has pointed out, "None of our philosophers, not accepting Heraclitus, Plato, Kant, or Hegel has ventured to erect such a spire, never frightened by storm or lightning."

Bertrand Russell rightly said: "Unless men increase in wisdom as much as in knowledge, an increase in knowledge will be an increase in sorrow." While the Greeks and the others specialized in the subject of man in society, India specialized in man in depth, man as the individual, as Swami Ranganathananda puts it. This was one ruling passion of the Indo-Aryans in the Upanishads. The great sages of the Upanishads were concerned with the man above and beyond his political or social dimensions. It was an inquiry, which challenged not only life but also death and resulted in the discovery of the immortal and the divine self of man.

Shaping the Indian Culture

The Upanishads gave a permanent orientation to Indian culture by their emphasis on inner penetration and their wholehearted advocacy of what the Greeks later formulated in the dictum "man, know thyself." All subsequent developments of Indian culture were powerfully conditioned by this Upanishadic legacy.

The Upanishads reveal an age characterized by a remarkable fervent of thought and inspiration. The physical and mental climate that made it possible is the land of plenty that was India. The entire social milieu of the Indo-Aryans was ripe with great potentialities. They had found leisure to think and ask questions. They had the choice to utilize the leisure either to conquer the outer world or the inner. With their mental gifts, they had turned their mental energies to the conquest of the inner world rather than of the world of matter and life at the sensate level.

Universal and Impersonal

The Upanishads have given us a body of insights that have a universal quality about them and this universality derives from their impersonality. The sages who discovered them had depersonalized themselves in the search for truth. They wanted to go beyond nature and realize the transcendental nature of man. They dared to take up this challenge and the Upanishads are the unique record of the methods they adopted, the struggles they undertook and the victory they achieved in this astonishing adventure of the human spirit.

And this is conveyed to us in passages of great power and poetic charm. In seeking the immortal, the sages conferred the immortality upon the literature that conveyed it.

The Principal Upanishads

In the Upanishads, we can study the graceful conflict of thought with thought, the emergence of more satisfactory thought, and the rejection of inadequate ideas. Hypotheses were advanced and rejected on the touchstone of experience and not at the dictate of a creed. Thus thought forged ahead to unravel the mystery of the world in which we live. Let's have a quick look at the 13 principal Upanishads:

Chandogya Upanishad

The Chandogya Upanishad is the Upanishad that belongs to the followers of the Sama Veda. It is actually the last eight chapters of the ten-chapter Chandogya Brahmana, and it emphasizes the importance of chanting the sacred Aum and recommends a religious life, which constitutes sacrifice, austerity, charity, and the study of the Vedas while living in the house of a guru. This Upanishad contains the doctrine of reincarnation as an ethical consequence of karma. It also lists and explains the value of human attributes like speech, will, thought, meditation, understanding, strength, memory, and hope.

Kena Upanishad

The Kena Upanishad derives its name from the word 'Kena', meaning 'by whom'. It has four sections, the first two in verse and the other two in prose. The metrical portion deals with the Supreme Unqualified Brahman, the absolute principle underlying the world of phenomenon, and the prose part deals with the Supreme as God, 'Isvara'. The Kena Upanishad concludes, as Sandersen Beck puts it, that austerity, restraint, and work are the foundation of the mystical doctrine; the Vedas are its limbs, and the truth is its home.

The one who knows it strikes off evil and becomes established in the most excellent, infinite, heavenly world.

Aitareya Upanishad

The Aitareya Upanishad belongs to the Rig Veda. It is the purpose of this Upanishad to lead the mind of the sacrificer away from the outer ceremonial to its inner meaning. It deals with the genesis of the universe and the creation of life, the senses, the organs, and the organisms. It also tries to delve into the identity of the intelligence that allows us to see, speak, smell, hear, and know.

Kaushitaki Upanishad

The Kaushitaki Upanishad explores the question of whether there is an end to the cycle of reincarnation and upholds the supremacy of the soul ('atman'), which is ultimately responsible for everything it experiences.

Katha Upanishad

Katha Upanishad, which belongs to the Yajur Veda, consists of two chapters, each of which has three sections. It employs an ancient story from the Rig Veda about a father who gives his son to death (Yama), while bringing out some of the highest teachings of mystical spirituality. There are some passages common to the Gita and Katha Upanishad.

Psychology is explained here by using the analogy of a chariot. The soul is the lord of the chariot, which is the body; the intuition is the chariot-driver, the mind the reins, the senses the horses, and the objects of the senses the paths. Those whose minds are undisciplined never reach their goal and go on to reincarnate. The wise and the disciplined, it says, obtain their goal and are freed from the cycle of rebirth.

Mundaka Upanishad

The Mundaka Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and has three chapters, each of which has two sections. The name is derived from the root 'mund' (to shave) as he that comprehends the teaching of the Upanishad is shaved or liberated from error and ignorance.

The Upanishad clearly states the distinction between the higher knowledge of the Supreme Brahman and the lower knowledge of the empirical world — the six 'Vedangas' of phonetics, ritual, grammar, definition, metrics, and astrology. It is by this higher wisdom and not by sacrifices or worship, which are here considered 'unsafe boats', that one can reach the Brahman. Like the Katha, the Mundaka Upanishad warns against "the ignorance of thinking oneself learned and going around deluded like the blind leading the blind".

Only an ascetic ('sanyasi') who has given up everything can obtain the highest knowledge.

Taittiriya Upanishad

The Taittiriya Upanishad is also part of the Yajur Veda. It is divided into three sections: The first deals with the science of phonetics and pronunciation, the second and the third deal with the knowledge of the Supreme Self ('Paramatmajnana'). Once again, here, Aum is emphasized as peace of the soul, and the prayers end with Aum and the chanting of peace ('Shanti') thrice, often preceded by the thought, "May we never hate." There is a debate regarding the relative importance of seeking the truth, going through austerity and studying the Vedas.

One teacher says truth is first, another austerity, and a third claims that the study and teaching of the Veda are first because it includes austerity and discipline. Finally, it says that the highest goal is to know the Brahman, for that is the truth.

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Svetasvatara Upanishad, Isavasya Upanishad, Prashna Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and the Maitri Upanishad are the other important and well-known books of the Upanishads.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is generally recognized to be the most important of the Upanishads, consists of three sections ('Kandas'), the Madhu Kanda which expounds the teachings of the basic identity of the individual and the Universal Self, the Muni Kanda which provides the philosophical justification of the teaching and the Khila Kanda, which deals with certain modes of worship and meditation, ('upasana'), hearing the 'upadesha' or the teaching ('sravana'), logical reflection ('m

Isavasya Upanishad

The Isavasya Upanishad derives its name from the opening word of the text 'Isavasya' or 'Isa', meaning 'Lord' that encloses all that moves in the world. Greatly revered, this short Upanishad is often put at the beginning of the Upanishads and marks the trend toward monotheism in the Upanishads. Its main purpose is to teach the essential unity of God and the world, being and becoming. It is interested not so much in the Absolute in itself ('Parabrahman') as in the Absolute in relation to the world ('Paramesvara').

It says that renouncing the world and not coveting the possessions of others can bring joy. The Isha Upanishad concludes with a prayer to Surya (sun) and Agni (fire).

Prasna Upanishad

The Prashna Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and has six sections dealing with six questions or 'Prashna' put to a sage by his disciples. The questions are: From where are all the creatures born? How many angels support and illumine a creature and which is supreme? What is the relationship between the life-breath and the soul? What are sleep, waking, and dreams? What is the result of meditating on the word Aum? What are the sixteen parts of the Spirit? This Upanishad answers all these six vital questions.

Mandukya Upanishad

The Mandukya Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and is an exposition of the principle of Aum as consisting of three elements, a, u, m, which may be used to experience the soul itself. It contains twelve verses that delineate four levels of consciousness: waking, dreaming, deep sleep, and a fourth mystical state of being one with the soul. This Upanishad by itself, it is said, is enough to lead one to liberation.

Maitri Upanishad

The Maitri Upanishad is the last of what are known as the principal Upanishads. It recommends meditation upon the soul ('atman') and life ('prana'). It says that the body is like a chariot without intelligence but it is driven by an intelligent being, who is pure, tranquil, breathless, selfless, undying, unborn, steadfast, independent and endless.

The charioteer is the mind, the reins are the five organs of perception, the horses are the organs of action, and the soul is unmanifest, imperceptible, incomprehensible, selfless, steadfast, stainless and self-abiding. It also tells the story of a king, Brihadratha, who realized that his body is not eternal, and went into the forest to practice austerity, and sought liberation from reincarnating existence.

The Laws of Manu: Full Text Translation by G. Buhler

The Laws of Manu, or Manusmriti are part of an ancient Hindu text originally written in Sanskrit. It is part of the Dharmasastras, a compilation of the religious ethics (Dharma) put forth by Hindu gurus in ancient Indian scriptures. Manu was himself an ancient sage.

Whether the laws were ever put into effect by ancient peoples or are merely a set of guidelines by which one should live one's life is a matter of some debate among Hindu scholars. It's believed that the Manusmriti was translated by the British during their rule of India and forms the basis for Hindu law under the colonial British government.

According to followers of Hinduism, the dharmic laws govern not only the individual but all in society.

This text was translated from the Sanskrit by German scholar and linguist Georg Buhler in 1886. The actual Laws of Manu are believed to date back to 1500 BCE. Here is the first chapter.

1. The great sages approached Manu, who was seated with a collected mind, and, having duly worshipped him, spoke as follows:

2. 'Deign, divine one, to declare to us precisely and in due order the sacred laws of each of the (four chief) castes (varna) and of the intermediate ones.

3. 'For thou, O Lord, alone knowest the purport, (i.e.) the rites, and the knowledge of the soul, (taught) in this whole ordinance of the Self-existent (Svayambhu), which is unknowable and unfathomable.'

4. He, whose power is measureless, being thus asked by the high-minded great sages, duly honoured them, and answered, 'Listen!'

5. This (universe) existed in the shape of Darkness, unperceived, destitute of distinctive marks, unattainable by reasoning, unknowable, wholly immersed, as it were, in deep sleep.

6. Then the divine Self-existent (Svayambhu, himself) indiscernible, (but) making (all) this, the great elements and the rest, discernible, appeared with irresistible (creative) power, dispelling the darkness.

7. He who can be perceived by the internal organ (alone), who is subtile, indiscernible, and eternal, who contains all created beings and is inconceivable, shone forth of his own (will).

8. He, desiring to produce beings of many kinds from his own body, first with a thought created the waters, and placed his seed in them.

9. That (seed) became a golden egg, in brilliancy equal to the sun; in that (egg) he himself was born as Brahman, the progenitor of the whole world.

10. The waters are called narah, (for) the waters are, indeed, the offspring of Nara; as they were his first residence (ayana), he thence is named Narayana.

11. From that (first) cause, which is indiscernible, eternal, and both real and unreal, was produced that male (Purusha), who is famed in this world (under the appellation of) Brahman.

12. The divine one resided in that egg during a whole year, then he himself by his thought (alone) divided it into two halves;

13. And out of those two halves he formed heaven and earth, between them the middle sphere, the eight points of the horizon, and the eternal abode of the waters.

14. From himself (atmanah) he also drew forth the mind, which is both real and unreal, likewise from the mind egoism, which possesses the function of self-consciousness (and is) lordly;

15. Moreover, the great one, the soul, and all (products) affected by the three qualities, and, in their order, the five organs which perceive the objects of sensation.

16. But, joining minute particles even of those six, which possess measureless power, with particles of himself, he created all beings.

17. Because those six (kinds of) minute particles, which form the (creator's) frame, enter (a-sri) these (creatures), therefore the wise call his frame sarira, (the body.)

18. That the great elements enter, together with their functions and the mind, through its minute parts the framer of all beings, the imperishable one.

19. But from minute body (-framing) particles of these seven very powerful Purushas springs this (world), the perishable from the imperishable.

20. Among them each succeeding (element) acquires the quality of the preceding one, and whatever place (in the sequence) each of them occupies, even so many qualities it is declared to possess.

21. But in the beginning he assigned their several names, actions, and conditions to all (created beings), even according to the words of the Veda.

22. He, the Lord, also created the class of the gods, who are endowed with life, and whose nature is action; and the subtile class of the Sadhyas, and the eternal sacrifice.

23. But from fire, wind, and the sun he drew forth the threefold eternal Veda, called Rik, Yagus, and Saman, for the due performance of the sacrifice.

24. Time and the divisions of time, the lunar mansions and the planets, the rivers, the oceans, the mountains, plains, and uneven ground.

25. Austerity, speech, pleasure, desire, and anger, this whole creation he likewise produced, as he desired to call these beings into existence.

26. Moreover, in order to distinguish actions, he separated merit from demerit, and he caused the creatures to be affected by the pairs (of opposites), such as pain and pleasure.

27. But with the minute perishable particles of the five (elements) which have been mentioned, this whole (world) is framed in due order.

28. But to whatever course of action the Lord at first appointed each (kind of beings), that alone it has spontaneously adopted in each succeeding creation.

29. Whatever he assigned to each at the (first) creation, noxiousness or harmlessness, gentleness

29. Whatever he assigned to each at the (first) creation, noxiousness or harmlessness, gentleness or ferocity, virtue or sin, truth or falsehood, that clung (afterwards) spontaneously to it.

30. As at the change of the seasons each season of its own accord assumes its distinctive marks, even so corporeal beings (resume in new births) their (appointed) course of action.

31. But for the sake of the prosperity of the worlds he caused the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet.

32. Dividing his own body, the Lord became half male and half female; with that (female) he produced Virag.

33. But know me, O most holy among the twice-born, to be the creator of this whole (world), whom that male, Virag, himself produced, having performed austerities.

34. Then I, desiring to produce created beings, performed very difficult austerities, and (thereby) called into existence ten great sages, lords of created beings,

35. Mariki, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Praketas, Vasishtha, Bhrigu, and Narada.

36. They created seven other Manus possessing great brilliancy, gods and classes of gods and great sages of measureless power,

37. Yakshas (the servants of Kubera, the demons called) Rakshasas and Pisakas, Gandharvas (or musicians of the gods), Apsarases (the dancers of the gods), Asuras, (the snake-deities called) Nagas and Sarpas, (the bird-deities called) Suparnas and the several classes of the manes,

38. Lightnings, thunderbolts and clouds, imperfect (rohita) and perfect rainbows, falling meteors, supernatural noises, comets, and heavenly lights of many kinds,

39 (Horse-faced) Kinnaras, monkeys, fishes, birds of many kinds, cattle, deer, men, and carnivorous beasts with two rows of teeth,

40. Small and large worms and beetles, moths, lice, flies, bugs, all stinging and biting insects and the several kinds of immovable things.

41. Thus was this whole (creation), both the immovable and the movable, produced by those high-minded ones by means of austerities and at my command, (each being) according to (the results of) its actions.

42. But whatever act is stated (to belong) to (each of) those creatures here below, that I will truly declare to you, as well as their order in respect to birth.

43. Cattle, deer, carnivorous beasts with two rows of teeth, Rakshasas, Pisakas, and men are born from the womb.

44. From eggs are born birds, snakes, crocodiles, fishes, tortoises, as well as similar terrestrial and aquatic (animals).

45. From hot moisture spring stinging and biting insects, lice, flies, bugs, and all other (creatures) of that kind which are produced by heat.

46. All plants, propagated by seed or by slips, grow from shoots; annual plants (are those) which, bearing many flowers and fruits, perish after the ripening of their fruit;

47. (Those trees) which bear fruit without flowers are called vanaspati (lords of the forest); but those which bear both flowers and fruit are called vriksha.

48. But the various plants with many stalks, growing from one or several roots, the different kinds of grasses, the climbing plants and the creepers spring all from seed or from slips.

49. These (plants) which are surrounded by multiform Darkness, the result of their acts (in former existences), possess internal consciousness and experience pleasure and pain.

50. The (various) conditions in this always terrible and constantly changing circle of births and deaths to which created beings are subject, are stated to begin with (that of) Brahman, and to end with (that of) these (just mentioned immovable creatures).

51. When he whose power is incomprehensible, had thus produced the universe and men, he disappeared in himself, repeatedly suppressing one period by means of the other.

52. When that divine one wakes, then this world stirs; when he slumbers tranquilly, then the universe sinks to sleep.

53. But when he reposes in calm sleep, the corporeal beings whose nature is action, desist from their actions and mind becomes inert.

54. When they are absorbed all at once in that great soul, then he who is the soul of all beings sweetly slumbers, free from all care and occupation.

55. When this (soul) has entered darkness, it remains for a long time united with the organs (of sensation), but performs not its functions; it then leaves the corporeal frame.

56. When, being clothed with minute particles (only), it enters into vegetable or animal seed, it then assumes, united (with the fine body), a (new) corporeal frame.

57. Thus he, the imperishable one, by (alternately) waking and slumbering, incessantly revivifies and destroys this whole movable and immovable (creation).

58. But he having composed these Institutes (of the sacred law), himself taught them, according to the rule, to me alone in the beginning; next I (taught them) to Mariki and the other sages.

59. Bhrigu, here, will fully recite to you these Institutes; for that sage learned the whole in its entirety from me.

60. Then that great sage Bhrigu, being thus addressed by Manu, spoke, pleased in his heart, to all the sages, 'Listen!'

61. Six other high-minded, very powerful Manus, who belong to the race of this Manu, the descendant of the Self-existent (Svayambhu), and who have severally produced created beings,

62. (Are) Svarokisha, Auttami, Tamasa, Raivata, Kakshusha, possessing great lustre, and the son of Vivasvat.

63. These seven very glorious Manus, the first among whom is Svayambhuva, produced and protected this whole movable and immovable (creation), each during the period (allotted to him).

64. Eighteen nimeshas (twinklings of the eye, are one kashtha), thirty kashthas one kala, thirty kalas one muhurta, and as many (muhurtas) one day and night.

65. The sun divides days and nights, both human and divine, the night (being intended) for the repose of created beings and the day for exertion.

66. A month is a day and a night of the manes, but the division is according to fortnights. The dark (fortnight) is their day for active exertion, the bright (fortnight) their night for sleep.

67. A year is a day and a night of the gods; their division is (as follows): the half year during which the sun progresses to the north will be the day, that during which it goes southwards the night.

68. But hear now the brief (description of) the duration of a night and a day of Brahman and of the several ages (of the world, yuga) according to their order.

69. They declare that the Krita age (consists of) four thousand years (of the gods); the twilight preceding it consists of as many hundreds, and the twilight following it of the same number.

70. In the other three ages with their twilights preceding and following, the thousands and hundreds are diminished by one (in each).

71. These twelve thousand (years) which thus have been just mentioned as the total of four (human) ages, are called one age of the gods.

72. But know that the sum of one thousand ages of the gods (makes) one day of Brahman, and that his night has the same length.

73. Those (only, who) know that the holy day of Brahman, indeed, ends after (the completion of) one thousand ages (of the gods) and that his night lasts as long, (are really) men acquainted with (the length of) days and nights.

74. At the end of that day and night he who was asleep, awakes and, after awaking, creates mind, which is both real and unreal.

75. Mind, impelled by (Brahman's) desire to create, performs the work of creation by modifying itself, thence ether is produced; they declare that sound is the quality of the latter.

76. But from et

76. But from ether, modifying itself, springs the pure, powerful wind, the vehicle of all perfumes; that is held to possess the quality of touch.

77. Next from wind modifying itself, proceeds the brilliant light, which illuminates and dispels darkness; that is declared to possess the quality of colour;

78. And from light, modifying itself, (is produced) water, possessing the quality of taste, from water earth which has the quality of smell; such is the creation in the beginning.

79. The before-mentioned age of the gods, (or) twelve thousand (of their years), being multiplied by seventy-one, (constitutes what) is here named the period of a Manu (Manvantara).

80. The Manvantaras, the creations and destructions (of the world, are) numberless; sporting, as it were, Brahman repeats this again and again.

81. In the Krita age Dharma is four-footed and entire, and (so is) Truth; nor does any gain accrue to men by unrighteousness.

82. In the other (three ages), by reason of (unjust) gains (agama), Dharma is deprived successively of one foot, and through (the prevalence of) theft, falsehood, and fraud the merit (gained by men) is diminished by one fourth (in each).

83. (Men are) free from disease, accomplish all their aims, and live four hundred years in the Krita age, but in the Treta and (in each of) the succeeding (ages) their life is lessened by one quarter.

84. The life of mortals, mentioned in the Veda, the desired results of sacrificial rites and the (supernatural) power of embodied (spirits) are fruits proportioned among men according to (the character of) the age.

85. One set of duties (is prescribed) for men in the Krita age, different ones in the Treta and in the Dvapara, and (again) another (set) in the Kali, in a proportion as (those) ages decrease in length.

86. In the Krita age the chief (virtue) is declared to be (the performance of) austerities, in the Treta (divine) knowledge, in the Dvapara (the performance of) sacrifices, in the Kali liberality alone.

87. But in order to protect this universe He, the most resplendent one, assigned separate (duties and) occupations to those who sprang from his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet.

88. To Brahmanas he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms).

89. The Kshatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures;

90. The Vaisya to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money, and to cultivate land.

91. One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Sudra, to serve meekly even these (other) three castes.

92. Man is stated to be purer above the navel (than below); hence the Self-existent (Svayambhu) has declared the purest (part) of him (to be) his mouth.

93. As the Brahmana sprang from (Brahman's) mouth, as he was the first-born, and as he possesses the Veda, he is by right the lord of this whole creation.

94. For the Self-existent (Svayambhu), having performed austerities, produced him first from his own mouth, in order that the offerings might be conveyed to the gods and manes and that this universe might be preserved.

95. What created being can surpass him, through whose mouth the gods continually consume the sacrificial viands and the manes the offerings to the dead?

96. Of created beings the most excellent are said to be those which are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the Brahmanas;

97. Of Brahmanas, those learned (in the Veda); of the learned, those who recognise (the necessity and the manner of performing the prescribed duties); of those who possess this knowledge, those who perform them; of the performers, those who know the Brahman.

98. The very birth of a Brahmana is an eternal incarnation of the sacred law; for he is born to (fulfil) the sacrof the sacred law; for he is born to (fulfil) the sacred law, and becomes one with Brahman.

99. A Brahmana, coming into existence, is born as the highest on earth, the lord of all created beings, for the protection of the treasury of the law.

100. Whatever exists in the world is, the property of the Brahmana; on account of the excellence of his origin The Brahmana is, indeed, entitled to all.

101. The Brahmana eats but his own food, wears but his own apparel, bestows but his own in alms; other mortals subsist through the benevolence of the Brahmana.

102. In order to clearly settle his duties those of the other (castes) according to their order, wise Manu sprung from the Self-existent, composed these Institutes (of the sacred Law).

103. A learned Brahmana must carefully study them, and he must duly instruct his pupils in them, but nobody else (shall do it).

104. A Brahmana who studies these Institutes (and) faithfully fulfils the duties (prescribed therein), is never tainted by sins, arising from thoughts, words, or deeds.

105. He sanctifies any company (which he may enter), seven ancestors and seven descendants, and he alone deserves (to possess) this whole earth.

106. (To study) this (work) is the best means of securing welfare, it increases understanding, it procures fame and long life, it (leads to) supreme bliss.

107. In this (work) the sacred law has been fully stated as well as the good and bad qualities of (human) actions and the immemorial rule of conduct, (to be followed) by all the four castes (varna).

108. The rule of conduct is transcendent law, whether it be taught in the revealed texts or in the sacred tradition; hence a twice-born man who possesses regard for himself, should be always careful to (follow) it.

109. A Brahmana who departs from the rule of conduct, does not reap the fruit of the Veda, but he who duly follows it, will obtain the full reward.

110. The sages who saw that the sacred law is thus grounded on the rule of conduct, have taken good conduct to be the most excellent root of all austerity.

111. The creation of the universe, the rule of the sacraments, the ordinances of studentship, and the respectful behaviour (towards Gurus), the most excellent rule of bathing (on return from the teacher's house),

112. (The law of) marriage and the description of the (various) marriage-rites, the regulations for the great sacrifices and the eternal rule of the funeral sacrifices,

113. The description of the modes of (gaining) subsistence and the duties of a Snataka, (the rules regarding) lawful and forbidden food, the purification of men and of things,

114. The laws concerning women, (the law) of hermits, (the manner of gaining) final emancipation and (of) renouncing the world, the whole duty of a king and the manner of deciding lawsuits,

115. The rules for the examination of witnesses, the laws concerning husband and wife, the law of (inheritance and) division, (the law concerning) gambling and the removal of (men nocuous like) thorns,

116. (The law concerning) the behaviour of Vaisyas and Sudras, the origin of the mixed castes, the law for all castes in times of distress and the law of penances,

117. The threefold course of transmigrations, the result of (good or bad) actions, (the manner of attaining) supreme bliss and the examination of the good and bad qualities of actions,

118. The primeval laws of countries, of castes (gati), of families, and the rules concerning heretics and companies (of traders and the like)- (all that) Manu has declared in these Institutes.

119. As Manu, in reply to my questions, formerly promulgated these Institutes, even so learn ye also the (whole

The Ramayana: India's Most Beloved Epic Tale

The Ramayana is undoubtedly the most popular and timeless Indian epic, read and loved by all. The term Ramayana literally means "the march (ayana) of Rama" in search of human values. The story is the narration of the struggle of Prince Rama to rescue wife Sita from the demon king, Ravana. As a literary work, it has been said to combine "the inner bliss of Vedic literature with the outer richness of delightfully profound story telling."

The true origins of the story are debated, but the authorship of the epic as we generally know it is assigned to the great sage Valmiki and is referred to as the Adi Kavya, or original epic. About the Valmiki Ramayana, Swami Vivekananda has said: "No language can be purer, none chaster, none more beautiful, and at the same time simpler, than the language in which the great poet has depicted the life of Rama."

About the Poet

Universally acclaimed and accepted as the first among Sanskrit poets, Valmiki was the first to discover a metrical expression of epic dimension and vision to match the emotional ecstasy of the story of Rama. According to a legend, Valmiki was a robber who one day met a hermit who transformed him into a virtuous being. Saraswati, the goddess of wisdom was believed to have assured the sage by standing at his side and guiding him to visualize the events of Ramayana and eulogize them with epic dignity and secular simplicity.

The Seven 'Kandas' or Sections

The epic poem is composed of rhyming couplets (known as slokas in high Sanskrit), employing a complex meter called anustup. These verses are grouped into individual chapters, or cantos called sargas, in which a specific event or intent is told. The sargas themselves are grouped into books called kandas.

The seven kandas of Ramayana are:

Bal Kanda, the boyhood section

Ayodhya Kanda, Rama's life in Ayodhya, until his banishment

Aranya Kanda, Rama's life in the forest and Sita's abduction by Ravana

Kishkindha Kanda, Rama's stay at Kishkindha, the capital of his monkey ally, Sugriva

Sundara Kanda, Rama's passage to Sri Lanka

Yuddha Kanda or Lanka Kanda, Rama's battle with Ravana, the recovery of Sita, and return to Ayodhya

Uttara Kanda, the section narrating Rama's life in Ayodhya as king, the birth of his two sons, Sita's test of innocence and return to her mother, and Rama's demise or ' ala samadhi (water-tomb).

Time of Composition

There was a long period of oral tradition before the Ramayana was actually written, and the original strand of the story drew upon various pre-existing folk tales about Rama. Like many other classical poems written in ancient times, the exact date and time of the genesis of Ramayana are yet to be determined accurately. The reference to the Greeks, Parthians, and Sakas shows that the time of composition of Ramayana cannot be earlier than the second century BCE. But the consensus is that Ramayana was written between the 4th and the 2nd centuries BCE, with augmentations up to about 300 CE.

Linguistically and philosophically, a period just after the Vedic age would most suit the content of the epic.

Versions and Translations

The heroic deeds of Rama and his exciting adventures have inspired generations of people, and for centuries, the epic existed only orally in Sanskrit. Other famous versions of Ramayana include:

Shri Ramcharitmanas in Avadhi (old Hindi) by Goswami Tulsidas

Kamban's Kambaraamayanam in Tamil

The Patala Ramayanam in Malayalam

The Bengali Ramayana by Krittivas Ojha

This monumental work had a deep influence on almost all Indian poets and writers of all ages and languages, including Ranganatha (15th century), Balarama Das and Narahari (16th century), Premanand (17th century), Sridhara (18th century), et al.

Valmiki's Ramayana was first introduced to the West in 1843 in Italian by Gaspare Gorresio with the support of Charles Albert, the King of Sardinia.

Universally regarded as one of the world's most important literary works, Ramayana has had a profound impact on the art, culture, family relations, gender, politics, nationalism, and militancy in the Indian sub-continent. The everlasting value of this epic tale has been extolled through the centuries, and it has been largely responsible for molding the Hindu character. However, it would be wrong to say that Ramayana belongs only to the Hindus.

The Ramayana in Southeast Asia

Long ago, the Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia and manifested itself in the text, temple architecture and performance--particularly in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Malaysia. Today, it belongs to the whole humanity because it is capable of serving as a code of ethics for all human beings, irrespective of caste, creed, color, and religion.

Unparalleled Popularity of the Ramayana

The characters and incidents in Ramayana provide the ideas and wisdom of common life and help to bind the people of India, regardless of caste and language. It is no wonder that two of India's greatest festive events--Dusshera and Diwali--are directly inspired by the Ramayana. The first commemorates the siege of Lanka and Rama's victory over Ravana; the second, the festival of lights, celebrates Rama and Sita's homecoming to their kingdom in Ayodhya.

Even now, the Ramayana continues to inspire a great many books interpreting its messages or presenting illustrated versions of the tale.

International Ramayana Conference

Every year scholars from different countries get together for the International Ramayana Conference (IRC), which includes presentations on various themes and workshops based on Ramayana. The IRC was held in India three times, two times in Thailand and one time each in Canada, Nepal, Mauritius, Surinam, Belgium, Indonesia, the Netherlands, China, Trinidad & Tobago and the US.

Ramayana Week & Ramnavami

The Ramayana Week begins nine days before Ramanavami, the birthday of Lord Rama. Every year, the Ramayana Week coincides with the beginning of Vasanta Navratri and culminates on the day of Ramnavami.

The Hindu Epic Ramayana

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